Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor Inhibitors, and Methods of Making and Using Same

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides novel inhibitors of MIF tautomerase activity. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are useful in treating or preventing inflammatory and/or auto-immune diseases. In other embodiments, the compounds of the invention are useful in reversing, ameliorating, and/or preventing tumor growth. In yet other embodiments, the compounds of the invention are useful in reversing, ameliorating, and/or preventing angiogenesis.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of, and claims priority under 35 U.S.C.§ 121 to, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/186,974, filed Nov. 12,2018, now allowed, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) toU.S. Provisional Application No. 62/586,791, filed Nov. 15, 2017 andU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/710,334, filed Feb. 16, 2018,all of which applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entireties.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under GM032136 awardedby National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights inthe invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is a cytokine that plays acentral role in numerous inflammatory diseases. MIF is widely expressedin both immune and non-immune cells including macrophages, endothelialcells, and T-cells. Upon activation, the cells release MIF, whichpromotes the release of other inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α andIL-1. Excessive or chronic inflammatory response is associated withtissue damage and autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis,Crohn's disease, and lupus erythematosus. The connection betweeninflammatory disease and cancer is also well-established, and MIF hasbeen shown to enhance cell proliferation by inhibiting accumulation ofthe tumor suppressor p53 and by promotion of angiogenesis. High MIFlevels are also associated with numerous neurological disorders,including Alzheimer's disease.

MIF is over-expressed in many cancer cells and can serve as a marker fordisease progression. Furthermore, MIF in cancer cells is protected fromdegradation by Hsp90, which has led to proposed targeting of Hsp90 as anindirect way of inhibiting MIF function. Disruption of the inflammatorycascade and restoration of normal p53 levels have clear implications forthe potential therapeutic value of inhibitors of MIF signaling. Indeed,immunoneutralization of MIF or deletion of the MIF gene is known tosuppress inflammatory response, tumor growth, and angiogenesis. At themolecular level, what is needed is interference with the interactionbetween MIF and its cell-surface receptor CD74.

MIF is a toroid-shaped, trimeric protein with a total of 342 amino acidresidues. Besides its role as a cytokine, MIF is a keto-enoltautomerase. Though the enzymatic activity appears to be vestigial inhumans, there are three tautomerase active sites at the interfaces ofthe monomer units opening to the outside of the toroid. The presence ofthe tautomerase sites presents an opportunity for complexation of atautomerase inhibitor that can also interfere with MIF/CD74 binding.

There is thus a need in the art for identifying novel compounds thatinhibit MIF tautomerase activity. In certain embodiments, such compoundscan be used to treat inflammatory and/or auto-immune diseases, andreverse, ameliorate and/or prevent tumor growth and angiogenesis. Thepresent invention addresses this need.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides compound of formula (I), or a salt, solvate,enantiomer, diastereoisomer, geometric isomer, or tautomer thereof:

wherein: A is CR⁵ or N; R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H,C₁-C₆ alkyl, and C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl, wherein the alkyl or heteroalkylgroup is optionally substituted with at least one selected from thegroup consisting of —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR,—OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR,—N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR; R² and R³ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, C₁-C₆alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, (C₃-C₇cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10 memberedheteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR; or one of R² and R³ is -L-R¹¹,wherein: L is selected from the group consisting of a bond, —O—, —N(R)—,C₁-C₄ alkylene, —C(═O)—, —N(R)C(═O)—, and —C(═O)N(R)—; and R¹¹ isoptionally substituted phenyl, pyridinyl, or pyrimidinyl; R⁴, R⁵, R⁶,and R¹⁰ are each independently selected from the group consisting of H,halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, and C₁-C₆ haloalkyl; R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, C₁-C₆alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, (C₃-C₇cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10 memberedheteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR; each occurrence of R isindependently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁-C₆ alkyl,C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₈ heterocyclyl,or the two R bound to the same N optionally form a C₃-C₈ heterocyclylgroup; each occurrence of R′ is independently selected from the groupconsisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₈ heterocyclyl; each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,cycloalkyl, or heterocyclyl group is optionally substituted with atleast one substituent selected from the group consisting of halogen,C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR; and each phenyl or heteroaryl groupis optionally substituted with at least one substituent selected fromthe group consisting of halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10membered heterocyclyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, C₆-C₁₀aryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, 5-10 membered heteroaryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, 4-10membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R,—C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R,—N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR.

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Ia):

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Ib):

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Ic):

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Id):

In certain embodiments, R is selected from the group consisting of H,—CH₃, —CH₂CH₂OH, —CH₂CH₂NH₂, —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂OH, —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂NH₂,—CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂-4-morpholinyl, —CH₂COOH, —CH₂CH₂COOH, and —CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH.In certain embodiments, R¹ is not —CH₃ or —CH₂COOH.

In certain embodiments, R² is H or —OR.

In certain embodiments, R³ is selected from the group consisting of H,C₆-C₁₀ aryl, and —OR. In certain embodiments, R³ is H, unsubstitutedphenyl, or phenyl substituted with 1 substituent selected from the groupconsisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, and —OR″, wherein R″is unsubstituted phenyl or phenyl substituted with 1 group independentlyselected from the group consisting of —OR and —C(═O)OR.

In certain embodiments, one of R² and R³ is -L-R¹¹.

In certain embodiments, L is O or NH.

In certain embodiments, R² and an optional substituent in R¹¹ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁-C₆ alkoxy,C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, carboxy, carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, amino-C₁-C₆alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkyl, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkyl,amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆alkyl, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, 4-10 memberedheterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, amino-C₁-C₆alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy,di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, 4-10 memberedheterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy,carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, andcarboxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy.

In certain embodiments, R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected from thegroup consisting of H and C₁-C₆ alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁴ and R⁵are independently selected from the group consisting of H, F, methyl,and ethyl.

In certain embodiments, R⁶ is H; R⁷ is halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, or —OR; R⁸is —OH, halogen, —CN, —OR, —NRR, or —C(═O)NRR; R⁹ is H or halogen; andR¹⁰ is H. In certain embodiments, R⁶, R⁷, R⁹, and R¹⁰ are eachindependently selected from the group consisting of H and F.

In certain embodiments, R⁸ is selected from the group consisting of H,F, Cl, and —OH.

The invention further provides a pharmaceutical composition comprisingat least one compound of the invention and at least one pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipient.

The invention further provides a method of inhibiting macrophagemigration inhibitory factor (MIF) activity in a subject. The inventionfurther provides a method of treating a disease or condition in whichinhibition of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) activity in asubject is therapeutically beneficial. The invention further provides amethod of treating an inflammatory disease or condition in a subject.The invention further provides a method of treating an autoimmunedisease in a subject. The invention further provides a method oftreating cancer in a subject. The invention further provides a method oftreating a disease or condition associated with high MIF expression in asubject. The invention further provides a method of treating anemia ofchronic disease in a subject.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises administering to thesubject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of theinvention, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound is formulated as a pharmaceuticalcomposition further comprising at least one pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient.

In certain embodiments, the inflammatory disease or condition isselected from the group consisting of proliferative vascular disease,acute respiratory distress syndrome, cytokine-mediated toxicity,psoriasis, interleukin-2 toxicity, appendicitis, peptic, gastric andduodenal ulcers, peritonitis, pancreatitis, ulcerative,pseudomembranous, acute and ischemic colitis, diverticulitis,epiglottitis, achalasia, cholangitis, cholecystitis, hepatitis,inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, enteritis, Whipple'sdisease, asthma, allergy, anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease,organ ischemia, reperfusion injury, organ necrosis, hay fever, sepsis,septicemia, endotoxic shock, cachexia, hyperpyrexia, eosinophilicgranuloma, granulomatosis sarcoidosis, septic abortion, epididymitis,vaginitis, prostatitis, urethritis, bronchitis, emphysema, rhinitis,cystic fibrosis, pneumonitis, alvealitis, bronchiolitis, pharyngitis,pleurisy, sinusitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virus infection,herpes infection, HIV infection, hepatitis B virus infection, hepatitisC virus infection, disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever, candidiasis,malaria, filariasis, amebiasis, hydatid cysts, burns, dermatitis,dermatomyositis, sunburn, urticaria, warts, wheals, vasulitis, angiitis,endocarditis, arteritis, atherosclerosis, thrombophlebitis,pericarditis, myocarditis, myocardial ischemia, periarteritis nodosa,rheumatic fever, Alzheimer's disease, coeliac disease, congestive heartfailure, meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, cerebralinfarction, cerebral embolism, Guillame-Barre syndrome, neuritis,neuralgia, spinal cord injury, paralysis, uveitis, arthritides,arthralgias, osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease, gout,periodontal disease, rheumatoid arthritis, synovitis, myasthenia gravis,thryoiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Goodpasture's syndrome,Behcets's syndrome, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease,ankylosing spondylitis, Berger's disease, type 1 diabetes, type 2diabetes, Berger's disease, Retier's syndrome, and Hodgkin's disease.

In certain embodiments, the autoimmune disease is selected from thegroup consisting of multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus,rheumatoid arthritis, graft versus host disease, autoimmune pulmonaryinflammation, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, Guillain-Barre syndrome,autoimmune thyroiditis, insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn'sdisease, scleroderma, psoriasis, Sjögren's syndrome, and autoimmuneinflammatory eye disease.

In certain embodiments, the cancer is a solid tumor or a hematologicalcancer.

In certain embodiments, the cancer is selected from the group consistingof prostate cancer, colon cancer, esophageal cancer, endometrial cancer,ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, renal cancer, hepatic cancer, pancreaticcancer, gastric cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, cancers of the heador neck, thyroid cancer, glioblastoma, sarcoma, bladder cancer,lymphoma, leukemia, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), mantle celllymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and multiplemyeloma.

In certain embodiments, the disease or condition associated with highMIF expression is selected from the group consisting of protozoalinfection, fungal infection, bacterial infection, viral infection,anemia of chronic disease, asthma, and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following detailed description of specific embodiments of theinvention will be better understood when read in conjunction with theappended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention,specific embodiments are shown in the drawings. It should be understood,however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangementsand instrumentalities of the embodiments shown in the drawings.

FIG. 1 illustrates a rendering from the 1.8 Å crystal structure of 1(R=MOEO) bound to MIF (PDB ID: 4WRB). Hydrogen bonds are highlightedwith dashed lines; the methoxyethoxy group on C6 of the quinoline issolvent-exposed.

FIG. 2 illustrates coordination of a lysine ligand in the crystalstructure of a complex with an aspartate kinase (PDB ID: 3AB4). Hydrogenbonds are denoted with dashed lines; the O—N distances goingcounterclockwise from the top are 2.58, 3.43, 3.51, 2.74, and 2.61 Å.

FIG. 3 illustrates a modeled complex of 3a (carbon atoms in light gray)with MIF using the BOMB program. Hydrogen bonds are shown with dashedlines.

FIGS. 4A-4C illustrate computed structures for complexes of ammonium ionwith (FIG. 4A) 1,2,3-triazole and its (FIG. 4B) quinolinyl and (FIG. 4C)1,7-naphthyridin-8-onyl analogs. Gas-phase DFT results give interactionenergies of −36, −45, and −59 kcal/mol for FIG. 4A, FIG. 4B, and FIG.4C.

FIG. 5 illustrates a rendering from the 2.16 Å crystal structure of 4a(carbon atoms in light gray) bound to MIF (PDB ID: 6B1C).

FIG. 6 illustrates an image derived from a Monte Carlo simulation of 3a(carbon atoms in light gray) showing two water molecules hydrogen-bondedwith Lys32 and one with the carbonyl group of 3a. Lys32 is participatingin a total of six hydrogen bonds.

FIGS. 7A-7C illustrate OMIT maps of the inhibitors bound to the bindingsite at the interface of monomers A and B. The OMIT map is displayed asgreen mesh for (FIG. 7A) 3a (carbon atoms in light gray) (contour level4.0 σ), (FIG. 7B) 4a (carbon atoms in light gray) (contour level 2.5 σ),and (FIG. 7C) 4b (contour level 3.0 σ). Hydrogen bonds discussed in themain text are indicated as black dotted lines.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates in part to the discovery of novelinhibitors of MIF tautomerase activity. In certain embodiments, thecompounds of the invention are useful in treating or preventinginflammatory and/or auto-immune diseases. In other embodiments, thecompounds of the invention are useful in reversing, ameliorating, and/orpreventing tumor growth. In yet other embodiments, the compounds of theinvention are useful in reversing, ameliorating, and/or preventingangiogenesis.

Potent MIF tautomerase inhibitors have been previously identified basedon computer-aided design, small molecule synthesis, inhibition andbinding assays, and protein crystallography. In certain embodiments,4-quinolinyl-triazoles with K_(i) values in the tautomerase assay below50 nM have been identified (see, for example, WO 2016/130968 A1), andthe compound activities were confirmed by K_(d) measurements in afluorescence polarization assay (see also Dziedzic, et al., 2015, J. Am.Chem. Soc. 137:2996-3003; Cisneros, et al., 2016, J. Am. Chem. Soc.138:8630-8638; Cisneros, et al., 2017, ACS Med. Chem. Lett. 8:124-127).In addition, crystal structures were reported for complexes of three ofthe inhibitors with MIF including for the parent 1 (R═H) and itsmethoxyethoxy analog, 1 (R=MOEO).

The positioning of the latter compound in the MIF tautomerase site isillustrated in FIG. 1. In addition to aryl-aryl interactions with Tyr36,Tyr95, and Phe113, hydrogen bonds occur between Asn97 and the phenolichydroxyl group of the inhibitor, the backbone NH of Ile64 and N2 of thetriazole, and the ammonium group of Lys32 with N3 of the triazole, thequinoline nitrogen, and the carbonyl oxygen of Ile64. The triplecoordination of Lys32 is striking and can be expected to be augmented byone or two water molecules as the Lys32-Gln35 segment is on the surfaceof the protein. This follows from prior computations of the hydration ofmethylammonium ion, which reveal four to five hydrogen bonds with watermolecules (Jorgensen & Gao, 1986, J. Phys. Chem. 90:2174-2182), and fromviewing numerous crystal structures in the RSCB Protein Data Bank. Theammonium group of lysine in certain embodiments participates in a totalof four or five hydrogen bonds with surrounding residues, ligands, andwater molecules. A sample illustration is provided in FIG. 2 from acrystal structure for an aspartate kinase with lysine itself as a ligand(Yoshida, et al., 2010, J. Biol. Chem. 285:27477-27486). The ammoniumgroup is seen to engage in five hydrogen bonds with three backbonecarbonyl groups, the side-chain carboxylate group of an aspartateresidue, and a water molecule.

In view of this pattern, modifications of 1 were sought featuringadditional coordination of Lys32 that could enhance the inhibition ofMIF's tautomerase activity. Addition of a phenoxy group at C8 in thequinoline led to a five-fold reduction in the inhibitory activitycompared to the parent 1 (R═H). Substitution of a 4-methoxyphenyl groupat C8 to engage in a cation-π interaction with Lys32 was even lesssuccessful, while replacement of the quinoline with 1,8-naphthyridineresulted in a 2.5-fold reduction in potency. In certain embodiments,placement of a carbonyl group at C8 of the quinoline can project closerto Lys32 than N8 of the naphthyridine. Thus, 1,7-naphthyridin-8-ones asin 3 and 4 were prepared. Model building with the BOMB program(Jorgensen, 2009, Acc. Chem. Res. 42:724-733) using OPLS force fields(Jorgensen & Tirado-Rives, 2005, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.102:6665-6670) provided auspicious images as in FIG. 3 for the complexof 3a (3, R=Me) with MIF. The computed structure has hydrogen bondsbetween Lys32 and the naphthyridinone O and N, N3 of the triazole, andthe carbonyl group of Ile64 with lengths of 3.29, 3.33, 3.18, and 2.76Å, respectively. DFT calculations(B2PLYP-D3BJ/aug-cc-pVTZ//ωB97X-D/6-311G++(d,p)) (Goerigk & Grimme,2011, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 13:6670-6688; Frisch, et al., Gaussian 09,revision D.01; Gaussian, Inc.: Wallingford, Conn., 2009) were alsocarried out for model complexes of NH₄ ⁺ with 1,2,3-triazole and thequinolinyl and naphthyridinonyl the three complexes. Effects ofhydration were then approximated using a polarizable continuum model(IEFPCM) (Cancès, et al., 1997, J. Chem. Phys. 107:3032-3041), yieldinginteraction energies of −9.9, −11.7, and −17.6 kcal/mol. Monte Carlofree-energy perturbation (FEP) calculations were also run at 25° C. forthe conversion of 3a to 1a (1, R═H) in TIP4P water both unbound andbound to MIF using standard protocols (Dziedzic, et al., 2015, J. Am.Chem. Soc. 137:2996-3003), including the OPLS-AA/M force field for MIFand OPLS/CM1A for the inhibitors (Jorgensen & Tirado-Rives, 2005, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102:6665-6670; Robertson, et al., 2015, J. Chem.Theory Comput. 11:3499-3509). The FEP calculations were run twice withsomewhat different initial geometries for the complex; the two resultsboth predict a slightly more favorable free energy of binding for 3a by0.28±0.32 and 0.45±0.32 kcal/mol. Without wishing to be limited by anytheory, such differences are too small to translate into a clearexperimental effect.

3 and 4 with R=Me (3a, 4a) and CH₂COOH (4b) were synthesized. The keyintermediates are the acetylenes 13/14 in Scheme 1, which are convertedto the desired products via one-pot Cu(I)-catalyzed click reactions.Starting from commercially available 1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one,alkylation with methyl iodide or ethyl-2-bromoacetate provides 5/6,which after mCPBA oxidation and treatment with oxalyl dichloride yieldsthe 2-chloro-naphthyridinones 9/10. A Sonogashira coupling followed byremoval of the TMS protecting group delivers the desired compounds13/14. For 4b, the ethyl ester was hydrolyzed with NaOH in dioxane asthe final step.

Cocrystal structures for 3a, 4a, and 4b bound to MIF were obtained atresolutions of 1.17, 2.16, and 2.00 Å. The structures are all similarfor the binding sites; for 4a, FIG. 5 illustrates the four expectedhydrogen bonds to Lys32. The structures for 4a and 4b also confirm thatthe fluorine atom points between Ile64 and Asn97. In the 1.17 Åstructure for 3a, all three binding sites for the MIF trimer areoccupied. In one copy, the O-Lys N or N-Lys N distances are 2.94, 3.16,2.95, and 2.82 Å for the naphthyridinone O and N, triazole N, and Ile64oxygen atom, and in the other copies, they are 2.83, 3.13, 3.03, 2.80 Åand 3.04, 3.23, 3.03, 3.34 Å. Thus, there are small differencesassociated with variations in the interprotein packing. Nohydrogen-bonded water molecules are resolved for Lys32, while there isone 2.83 Å from the naphthyridinone oxygen atom.

For the assaying, inhibition constants K_(i) were determined as beforeusing 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid (HPP) as the substrate (Cisneros, etal., 2016, Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 26:2764-2767). Inhibitory activityis monitored by measuring formation of the borate complex of the enolproduct at 305 nm using a Tecan Infinite F500 plate reader. Bindingconstants K_(d) were also obtained for the new compounds using afluorescence polarization assay (Cisneros, et al., 2016, J. Am. Chem.Soc. 138:8630-8638). In addition, the aqueous solubility of 4b wasmeasured with a shake-flask procedure (Cisneros, et al., 2017, ACS Med.Chem. Lett. 8:124-127). Saturated solutions in Britton-Robinson buffer(pH 6.5) are filtered (Acrodisc syringe, 0.2 m pore) and analyzed byUV-vis spectroscopy (Agilent 8453).

The assay results for the naphthyridinones are compared with data forpreviously reported analogs of 1 and 2 and a reference compound, ISO-1(methyl 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4,5-dihydroisoxazole-5-carboxylate;Lubetsky, et al., 2002, J. Biol. Chem. 277:24976-24982), in Table 1. ForISO-1, K_(i) measurements were made nine times with results of 21-39 μMand an average of 30 μM, while K_(d) measurements were made four timeswith results of 20-30 μM, averaging 23 μM. The K_(i) and K_(d) resultsin Table 1 are in good accord with the differences, consistent with theexpected uncertainties for both measurements.

Comparison of the results for 1a and 3a shows that the two compoundshave essentially the same activity. Though 3a represents an improvementover the previous modifications of the quinoline fragment, it isprovocative in view of the added hydrogen bond to Lys32 that iswell-documented in the crystal structures. Other analogs of 1a alsotypically have K_(i) and K_(d) values between 0.2 and 0.4 μM (Table 1).Addition of the fluorine in progressing from 1 to 2 usually improvesactivity two- to four-fold, as for 1d, 1e, and if vs. 2a, 2b, and 2c.Without wishing to be limited by any theory, the effect is attributed toenhanced strength of the hydrogen bond between the phenolic hydroxylgroup and Asn97 as well as hydrophobic contact of the fluorine with theside chain of Met101. The five-fold enhancement in K_(i) and two-foldenhancement in Kd for 3a vs. 4a suggests that the K_(i) listed for 3a inTable 1 may be somewhat higher than its actual value. In any event, 4aand 4b are very potent MIF tautomerase inhibitors with K_(i)s of 75 and90 nM. These activities are again similar to those for analogs of 2 inspite of the added hydrogen bond with Lys32 (FIG. 5). The carboxylicacid 4b was chosen for synthesis since there seemed to be a patternfavoring expected placement of the carboxylate group near Lys32 as in 2cand 2d vs 2a and 2b; however, the electrostatic benefit is not apparentfor 4a vs 4b, perhaps owing to the proximity of the naphthyridinonecarbonyl group.

Though the FEP results turned out to be qualitatively correct, theconfidence level is not yet at the point where one rejects pursuit ofanalogs as tempting as 3 and 4. Traditional scoring functions used indocking calculations typically count well-formed protein-ligand hydrogenbonds like the present cases as contributing 1 kcal/mol (a factor of 5)to binding affinity. Thus, the outcome is context dependent, beingsensitive to the complex balance of protein-ligand, protein-water, andligand-water interactions. In viewing complexes for 1a and 3a from theMonte Carlo simulations, one might expect one less hydrogen bond betweenwater molecules and Lys32 for 3a. However, for both 1a and 3a, there areconsistently two water molecules hydrogen-bonded to Lys32, and for 3a,there is an additional hydrogen bond with the naphthyridinone carbonylgroup (FIG. 6). For the unbound 3a, there is also just one watermolecule hydrogen-bonded to the carbonyl group. Thus, the origins of thepresumably greater dehydration penalty upon binding 3a rather than 1a,which offsets the added protein-ligand hydrogen bond with 3a, are subtleand likely dominated by entropy effects.

TABLE 1 Experimental Inhibition Constants K_(i), Binding Constants K_(d)(μM), and Aqueous Solubility S (μg/mL) Cmpd R Ki Kd S 1a H 0.23 0.26 2.21b HOCH₂CH₂O 0.53 ND 2.6  1c^(a) H₂NCH₂CH₂O 0.26 ND 3.7  1d^(a)H₂N(CH₂CH₂O)₂ 0.36 0.35 13.9  1e^(b) 4-Mr(CH₂CH₂O)₂ 0.16 0.21 48.5 1fHOOCCH₂O 0.20 ND 365  2a^(a) H₂N(CH₂CH₂O)₂ 0.144 0.16 9.1 2b4-Mr(CH₂CH₂O)₂ 0.074 0.15 27.2 2c HOOCCH₂O 0.048 ND 37.0 2d HOOC(CH₂)₃O0.039 0.063 19.2 3a H₃C 0.363 0.213 ND 4a H₃C 0.075 0.111 ND 4b HOOCCH₂0.090 0.094 288 ISO-1 30.1 23.1 ND ^(a)TFA salt. ^(b)Mr = morpholinyl.

Definitions

As used herein, each of the following terms has the meaning associatedwith it in this section.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used inthe practice or testing of the present invention, exemplary methods andmaterials are described.

Generally, the nomenclature used herein and the laboratory procedures inpharmaceutical science and organic chemistry are those well-known andcommonly employed in the art.

As used herein, the articles “a” and “an” refer to one or to more thanone (i.e. to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. Byway of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

As used herein, the term “about” is understood by persons of ordinaryskill in the art and varies to some extent on the context in which it isused. As used herein when referring to a measurable value such as anamount, a temporal duration, and the like, the term “about” is meant toencompass variations of 20% or 10%, in certain other embodiments 5%, inother embodiments 1%, and in yet other embodiments 0.1% from thespecified value, as such variations are appropriate to perform thedisclosed methods.

As used herein, a “disease” is a state of health of a subject whereinthe subject cannot maintain homeostasis, and wherein if the disease isnot ameliorated then the subject's health continues to deteriorate.

As used herein, a “disorder” in a subject is a state of health in whichthe subject is able to maintain homeostasis, but in which the subject'sstate of health is less favorable than it would be in the absence of thedisorder. Left untreated, a disorder does not necessarily cause afurther decrease in the subject's state of health.

As used herein, the term “ED₅₀” or “ED50” refers to the effective doseof a formulation that produces about 50% of the maximal effect insubjects that are administered that formulation.

As used herein, an “effective amount,” “therapeutically effectiveamount” or “pharmaceutically effective amount” of a compound is thatamount of compound that is sufficient to provide a beneficial effect tothe subject to which the compound is administered.

“Instructional material,” as that term is used herein, includes apublication, a recording, a diagram, or any other medium of expressionthat can be used to communicate the usefulness of the composition and/orcompound of the invention in a kit. The instructional material of thekit may, for example, be affixed to a container that contains thecompound and/or composition of the invention or be shipped together witha container that contains the compound and/or composition.

As used herein, a “patient” or “subject” may be a human or non-humanmammal or a bird. Non-human mammals include, for example, livestock andpets, such as ovine, bovine, porcine, canine, feline and murine mammals.In certain other embodiments, the subject is human.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutical composition” or “composition”refers to a mixture of at least one compound useful within the inventionwith a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The pharmaceuticalcomposition facilitates administration of the compound to a subject.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to amaterial, such as a carrier or diluent, which does not abrogate thebiological activity or properties of the compound useful within theinvention, and is relatively non-toxic, i.e., the material may beadministered to a subject without causing undesirable biological effectsor interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the components of thecomposition in which it is contained.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” means apharmaceutically acceptable material, composition or carrier, such as aliquid or solid filler, stabilizer, dispersing agent, suspending agent,diluent, excipient, thickening agent, solvent or encapsulating material,involved in carrying or transporting a compound useful within theinvention within or to the subject such that it may perform its intendedfunction. Typically, such constructs are carried or transported from oneorgan, or portion of the body, to another organ, or portion of the body.Each carrier must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible withthe other ingredients of the formulation, including the compound usefulwithin the invention, and not injurious to the subject. Some examples ofmaterials that may serve as pharmaceutically acceptable carriersinclude: sugars, such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches, such ascorn starch and potato starch; cellulose, and its derivatives, such assodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate;powdered tragacanth; malt; gelatin; talc; excipients, such as cocoabutter and suppository waxes; oils, such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil,safflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and soybean oil; glycols,such as propylene glycol; polyols, such as glycerin, sorbitol, mannitoland polyethylene glycol; esters, such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate;agar; buffering agents, such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminumhydroxide; surface active agents; alginic acid; pyrogen-free water;isotonic saline; Ringer's solution; ethyl alcohol; phosphate buffersolutions; and other non-toxic compatible substances employed inpharmaceutical formulations. As used herein, “pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier” also includes any and all coatings, antibacterialand antifungal agents, and absorption delaying agents, and the like thatare compatible with the activity of the compound useful within theinvention, and are physiologically acceptable to the subject.Supplementary active compounds may also be incorporated into thecompositions. The “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” may furtherinclude a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of the compound useful withinthe invention. Other additional ingredients that may be included in thepharmaceutical compositions used in the practice of the invention areknown in the art and described, for example in Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences (Genaro, Ed., Mack Publishing Co., 1985, Easton,Pa.), which is incorporated herein by reference.

As used herein, the language “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refersto a salt of the administered compound prepared from pharmaceuticallyacceptable non-toxic acids and bases, including inorganic acids,inorganic bases, organic acids, inorganic bases, solvates, hydrates, andclathrates thereof.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to amixture of at least one compound useful within the invention with otherchemical components, such as carriers, stabilizers, diluents, dispersingagents, suspending agents, thickening agents, and/or excipients. Thepharmaceutical composition facilitates administration of the compound toan organism. Multiple techniques of administering a compound include,but are not limited to, intravenous, oral, aerosol, parenteral,ophthalmic, pulmonary and topical administration.

The term “prevent,” “preventing” or “prevention,” as used herein, meansavoiding or delaying the onset of symptoms associated with a disease orcondition in a subject that has not developed such symptoms at the timethe administering of an agent or compound commences. Disease, conditionand disorder are used interchangeably herein.

The term “solvate,” as used herein, refers to a compound formed bysolvation, which is a process of attraction and association of moleculesof a solvent with molecules or ions of a solute. As molecules or ions ofa solute dissolve in a solvent, they spread out and become surrounded bysolvent molecules.

The term “treat,” “treating” or “treatment,” as used herein, meansreducing the frequency or severity with which symptoms of a disease orcondition are experienced by a subject by virtue of administering anagent or compound to the subject.

As used herein, the term “alkyl,” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent means, unless otherwise stated, a straight or branched chainhydrocarbon having the number of carbon atoms designated (i.e., C₁-C₁₀means one to ten carbon atoms) and includes straight, branched chain, orcyclic substituent groups. Examples include methyl, ethyl, propyl,isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert butyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, andcyclopropylmethyl. Most preferred is (C₁-C₆)alkyl, such as, but notlimited to, ethyl, methyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, n-pentyl, n-hexyl andcyclopropylmethyl.

As used herein, the term “alkylene” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent means, unless otherwise stated, a straight or branchedhydrocarbon group having the number of carbon atoms designated (i.e.,C₁-C₁₀ means one to ten carbon atoms) and includes straight, branchedchain, or cyclic substituent groups, wherein the group has two openvalencies. Examples include methylene, 1,2-ethylene, 1,1-ethylene,1,1-propylene, 1,2-propylene and 1,3-propylene.

As used herein, the term “cycloalkyl,” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent means, unless otherwise stated, a cyclic chain hydrocarbonhaving the number of carbon atoms designated (i.e., C3-C6 means a cyclicgroup comprising a ring group consisting of three to six carbon atoms)and includes straight, branched chain or cyclic substituent groups.Examples include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl,cycloheptyl, and cyclooctyl. Most preferred is (C₃-C₆)cycloalkyl, suchas, but not limited to, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl andcyclohexyl.

As used herein, the term “alkenyl,” employed alone or in combinationwith other terms, means, unless otherwise stated, a stablemono-unsaturated or di-unsaturated straight chain or branched chainhydrocarbon group having the stated number of carbon atoms. Examplesinclude vinyl, propenyl (or allyl), crotyl, isopentenyl, butadienyl,1,3-pentadienyl, 1,4-pentadienyl, and the higher homologs and isomers. Afunctional group representing an alkene is exemplified by —CH₂—CH═CH₂.

As used herein, the term “alkynyl,” employed alone or in combinationwith other terms, means, unless otherwise stated, a stable straightchain or branched chain hydrocarbon group with a triple carbon-carbonbond, having the stated number of carbon atoms. Non-limiting examplesinclude ethynyl and propynyl, and the higher homologs and isomers. Theterm “propargylic” refers to a group exemplified by —CH₂—C≡CH. The term“homopropargylic” refers to a group exemplified by —CH₂CH₂—C≡CH. Theterm “substituted propargylic” refers to a group exemplified by—CR₂—C≡CR, wherein each occurrence of R is independently H, alkyl,substituted alkyl, alkenyl or substituted alkenyl, with the proviso thatat least one R group is not hydrogen. The term “substitutedhomopropargylic” refers to a group exemplified by —CR₂CR₂—C≡CR, whereineach occurrence of R is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl,alkenyl or substituted alkenyl, with the proviso that at least one Rgroup is not hydrogen.

As used herein, the term “alkenylene”, employed alone or in combinationwith other terms, means, unless otherwise stated, a stablemono-unsaturated or di-unsaturated straight chain or branched chainhydrocarbon group having the stated number of carbon atoms wherein thegroup has two open valencies.

As used herein, the term “alkynylene”, employed alone or in combinationwith other terms, means, unless otherwise stated, a stable straightchain or branched chain hydrocarbon group with a triple carbon-carbonbond, having the stated number of carbon atoms wherein the group has twoopen valencies.

As used herein, the term “substituted alkyl”, “substituted cycloalkyl”,“substituted alkenyl”, “substituted alkynyl”, “substituted alkylene”,“substituted alkenylene”, “substituted alkynylene”, “substitutedheteroalkyl”, “substituted heteroalkenyl”, “substituted heteroalkynyl”,“substituted aryl”, “substituted heteroaryl” or “substitutedheterocyclyl” means alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkylene,alkenylene, alkynylene, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, aryl,heteroaryl, or heterocyclyl as defined above, substituted by one, two orthree substituents selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₁₀ alkyl,halogen, perhaloakyl, ═O, —OH, alkoxy, tetrahydro-2-H-pyranyl, —NH₂,—N(CH₃)₂, phenyl, benzyl, (1-methyl-imidazol-2-yl), pyridin-2-yl,pyridin-3-yl, pyridin-4-yl, —C(═O)OH, trifluoromethyl, —C≡N,—C(═O)O(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)NH(C₁-C₄)alkyl,—C(═O)N((C₁-C₄)alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH₂, —C(═NH)NH₂, and —NO₂, preferablycontaining one or two substituents selected from halogen, —OH, alkoxy,—NH₂, trifluoromethyl, —N(CH₃)₂, and —C(═O)OH, more preferably selectedfrom halogen, alkoxy and —OH. Examples of substituted alkyls include,but are not limited to, 2,2-difluoropropyl, 2-carboxycyclopentyl and3-chloropropyl.

As used herein, the term “alkoxy” employed alone or in combination withother terms means, unless otherwise stated, an alkyl group having thedesignated number of carbon atoms, as defined above, connected to therest of the molecule via an oxygen atom, such as, for example, methoxy,ethoxy, 1-propoxy, 2-propoxy (isopropoxy) and the higher homologs andisomers. Preferred are (C₁-C₃)alkoxy, such as, but not limited to,ethoxy and methoxy.

As used herein, the term “halo” or “halogen” alone or as part of anothersubstituent means, unless otherwise stated, a fluorine, chlorine,bromine, or iodine atom, preferably, fluorine, chlorine, or bromine,more preferably, fluorine or chlorine.

As used herein, the term “heteroalkyl” by itself or in combination withanother term means, unless otherwise stated, a stable straight orbranched chain alkyl group consisting of the stated number of carbonatoms and one or two heteroatoms selected from the group consisting ofO, N, and S, and wherein the nitrogen and sulfur atoms may be optionallyoxidized and the nitrogen heteroatom may be optionally quaternized. Theheteroatom(s) may be placed at any position of the heteroalkyl group,including between the rest of the heteroalkyl group and the fragment towhich it is attached, as well as attached to the most distal carbon atomin the heteroalkyl group. Examples include: —O—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃,—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂—OH, —CH₂—CH₂—NH—CH₃, —CH₂—S—CH₂—CH₃, and —CH₂CH₂—S(═O)—CH₃.Up to two heteroatoms may be consecutive, such as, for example,—CH₂—NH—OCH₃, or —CH₂—CH₂—S—S—CH₃.

As used herein, the term “heteroalkenyl” by itself or in combinationwith another term means, unless otherwise stated, a stable straight orbranched chain monounsaturated or di unsaturated hydrocarbon groupconsisting of the stated number of carbon atoms and one or twoheteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, N, and S, andwherein the nitrogen and sulfur atoms may optionally be oxidized and thenitrogen heteroatom may optionally be quaternized. Up to two heteroatomsmay be placed consecutively. Examples include —CH═CH—O—CH₃,—CH═CH—CH₂—OH, —CH₂—CH═N—OCH₃, —CH═CH—N(CH₃)—CH₃, and —CH₂—CH═CH—CH₂—SH.

As used herein, the term “aromatic” refers to a carbocycle orheterocycle with one or more polyunsaturated rings and having aromaticcharacter, i.e. having (4n+2) delocalized π (pi) electrons, where n isan integer.

As used herein, the term “aryl,” employed alone or in combination withother terms, means, unless otherwise stated, a carbocyclic aromaticsystem containing one or more rings (typically one, two or three rings)wherein such rings may be attached together in a pendent manner, such asa biphenyl, or may be fused, such as naphthalene. Examples includephenyl, anthracyl, and naphthyl. Preferred are phenyl and naphthyl, mostpreferred is phenyl.

As used herein, the term “aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl” means a functional groupwherein a one to three carbon alkylene chain is attached to an arylgroup, e.g., —CH₂CH₂-phenyl or —CH₂-phenyl (benzyl). Preferred isaryl-CH₂— and aryl-CH(CH₃)—. The term “substituted aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl”means an aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl functional group in which the aryl group issubstituted. Preferred is substituted aryl(CH₂)—. Similarly, the term“heteroaryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl” means a functional group wherein a one tothree carbon alkylene chain is attached to a heteroaryl group, e.g.,—CH₂CH₂—pyridyl. Preferred is heteroaryl-(CH₂)—. The term “substitutedheteroaryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl” means a heteroaryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl functionalgroup in which the heteroaryl group is substituted. Preferred issubstituted heteroaryl-(CH₂)—.

As used herein, the term “heterocycle” or “heterocyclyl” or“heterocyclic” or “heterocycloalkyl” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent means, unless otherwise stated, an unsubstituted orsubstituted, stable, mono- or multi-cyclic heterocyclic ring system thatconsists of carbon atoms and at least one heteroatom selected from thegroup consisting of N, O, and S, and wherein the nitrogen and sulfurheteroatoms may be optionally oxidized, and the nitrogen atom may beoptionally quaternized. The heterocyclic system may be attached, unlessotherwise stated, at any heteroatom or carbon atom that affords a stablestructure. A heterocycle may be aromatic or non-aromatic in nature. Incertain other embodiments, the heterocycle is a heteroaryl.

As used herein, the term “heteroaryl” or “heteroaromatic” refers to aheterocycle having aromatic character. A polycyclic heteroaryl mayinclude one or more rings that are partially saturated. Examples includetetrahydroquinoline and 2,3 dihydrobenzofuryl.

Examples of non-aromatic heterocycles include monocyclic groups such asaziridine, oxirane, thiirane, azetidine, oxetane, thietane, pyrrolidine,pyrroline, imidazoline, pyrazolidine, dioxolane, sulfolane,2,3-dihydrofuran, 2,5-dihydrofuran, tetrahydrofuran, thiophane,piperidine, 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, 1,4-dihydropyridine, piperazine,morpholine, thiomorpholine, pyran, 2,3-dihydropyran, tetrahydropyran,1,4-dioxane, 1,3-dioxane, homopiperazine, homopiperidine, 1,3-dioxepane,4,7-dihydro-1,3-dioxepin and hexamethyleneoxide.

Examples of heteroaryl groups include pyridyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl(such as, but not limited to, 2- and 4-pyrimidinyl), pyridazinyl,thienyl, furyl, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, pyrazolyl,isothiazolyl, 1,2,3-triazolyl, 1,2,4-triazolyl, 1,3,4-triazolyl,tetrazolyl, 1,2,3-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,3-oxadiazolyl, 1,3,4-thiadiazolyland 1,3,4-oxadiazolyl.

Examples of polycyclic heterocycles include indolyl (such as, but notlimited to, 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- and 7-indolyl), indolinyl, quinolyl,tetrahydroquinolyl, isoquinolyl (such as, but not limited to, 1- and5-isoquinolyl), 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl(such as, but not limited to, 2- and 5-quinoxalinyl), quinazolinyl,phthalazinyl, 1,8-naphthyridinyl, 1,4-benzodioxanyl, coumarin,dihydrocoumarin, 1,5-naphthyridinyl, benzofuryl (such as, but notlimited to, 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- and 7-benzofuryl), 2,3-dihydrobenzofuryl,1,2-benzisoxazolyl, benzothienyl (such as, but not limited to, 3-, 4-,5-, 6-, and 7-benzothienyl), benzoxazolyl, benzothiazolyl (such as, butnot limited to, 2-benzothiazolyl and 5-benzothiazolyl), purinyl,benzimidazolyl, benztriazolyl, thioxanthinyl, carbazolyl, carbolinyl,acridinyl, pyrrolizidinyl, and quinolizidinyl.

The aforementioned listing of heterocyclyl and heteroaryl moieties isintended to be representative and not limiting.

As used herein, the term “substituted” means that an atom or group ofatoms has replaced hydrogen as the substituent attached to anothergroup. Non-limiting examples of “substituted” groups include C₁-C₁₀alkyl, halogen, perhaloakyl, ═O, —OH, alkoxy, —NH₂, —N(CH₃)₂, phenyl,benzyl, (1-methyl-imidazol-2-yl), pyridin-2-yl, pyridin-3-yl,pyridin-4-yl, —C(═O)OH, —C≡N, —C(═O)O(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —C(═O)NH₂,—C(═O)NH(C₁-C₄)alkyl, —C(═O)N((C₁-C₄)alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH₂, —C(═NH)NH₂, and—NO₂.

For aryl, aryl-(C₁-C₃)alkyl and heterocyclyl groups, the term“substituted” as applied to the rings of these groups refers to anylevel of substitution, namely mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, orpenta-substitution, where such substitution is permitted. Thesubstituents are independently selected, and substitution may be at anychemically accessible position. In certain other embodiments, thesubstituents vary in number between one and four. In other embodiments,the substituents vary in number between one and three. In yet otherembodiments, the substituents vary in number between one and two. In yetother embodiments, the substituents are independently selected from thegroup consisting of C₁₋₆ alkyl, —OH, C₁₋₆ alkoxy, halo, amino, acetamidoand nitro. As used herein, where a substituent is an alkyl or alkoxygroup, the carbon chain may be branched, straight or cyclic, withstraight being preferred. The term “substituted heterocycle” and“substituted heteroaryl” as used herein refers to a heterocycle orheteroaryl group having one or more substituents including halogen, CN,OH, NO₂, amino, alkyl, cycloalkyl, carboxyalkyl (C(O)Oalkyl),trifluoroalkyl such as CF₃, aryloxy, alkoxy, aryl, or heteroaryl. Asubstituted heterocycle or heteroaryl group may have 1, 2, 3, or 4substituents.

The following abbreviations are used herein: DFT, density functionaltheory; FEP, free-energy perturbation; DCM, dichloromethane; DMF,dimethylformamide; MIF, macrophage migration inhibitory factor; TBAF,tetrabutylammonium fluoride

Throughout this disclosure, various aspects of the invention may bepresented in a range format. It should be understood that thedescription in range format is merely for convenience and brevity andshould not be construed as an inflexible limitation on the scope of theinvention. Accordingly, the description of a range should be consideredto have specifically disclosed all the possible sub-ranges as well asindividual numerical values within that range and, when appropriate,partial integers of the numerical values within ranges. For example,description of a range such as from 1 to 6 should be considered to havespecifically disclosed sub-ranges such as from 1 to 3, from 1 to 4, from1 to 5, from 2 to 4, from 2 to 6, from 3 to 6 etc., as well asindividual numbers within that range, for example, 1, 2, 2.7, 3, 4, 5,5.3, and 6. This applies regardless of the breadth of the range.

Compounds and Compositions

The invention includes a compound of formula (I), or a salt, solvate,enantiomer, diastereoisomer, geometric isomer, or tautomer thereof:

wherein:

-   -   A is CR⁵ or N;    -   R¹ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁-C₆ alkyl, and        C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl, wherein the alkyl or heteroalkyl group is        optionally substituted with at least one selected from the group        consisting of —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR,        —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR,        —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR,

R² and R³ are independently selected from the group consisting of H,halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl,C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl,(C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10membered heteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄alkylene, nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR;

-   -   or one of R² and R³ is -L-R¹¹, wherein:    -   L is selected from the group consisting of a bond, —O—, —N(R)—,        C₁-C₄ alkylene, —C(═O)—, —N(R)C(═O)—, and —C(═O)N(R)—; and    -   R¹¹ is optionally substituted phenyl, pyridinyl, or pyrimidinyl;

R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, and R¹⁰ are each independently selected from the groupconsisting of H, halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, and C₁-C₆ haloalkyl;

R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ are independently selected from the group consisting ofH, halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl,C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl,(C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10membered heteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄alkylene, nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR;

each occurrence of R is independently selected from the group consistingof H, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, orC₃-C₈ heterocyclyl, or the two R bound to the same N optionally form aC₃-C₈ heterocyclyl group;

each occurrence of R′ is independently selected from the groupconsisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₈ heterocyclyl;

each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, or heterocyclyl group isoptionally substituted with at least one substituent selected from thegroup consisting of halogen, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10membered heterocyclyl, nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR,—C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR,—N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR; each phenyl orheteroaryl group is optionally substituted with at least one substituentselected from the group consisting of halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 memberedheteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene,C₆-C₁₀ aryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, 5-10 membered heteroaryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene,4-10 membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR,—C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR,—N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and—S(═O)₂NRR.

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Ia):

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Ib):

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Ic):

In certain embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula (Id):

In certain embodiments, the compound is selected from the groupconsisting of 3a, 4a, and 4b. In other embodiments, the compound is not3a. In yet other embodiments, the compound is not 4a. In yet otherembodiments, the compound is not 4b.

In certain embodiments, R¹ is H. In other embodiments, R¹ is —CH₃. Inyet other embodiments, R¹ is —CH₂CH₂OH. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is—CH₂CH₂NH₂. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂OH. In yetother embodiments, R¹ is —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂NH₂. In yet other embodiments, R¹is —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂-4-morpholinyl. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is—CH₂COOH. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is —CH₂CH₂COOH. In yet otherembodiments, R¹ is —CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH.

In certain embodiments, R¹ is not H. In other embodiments, R¹ is not—CH₃. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is not —CH₂CH₂OH. In yet otherembodiments, R¹ is not —CH₂CH₂NH₂. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is not—CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂OH. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is not —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂NH₂.In yet other embodiments, R¹ is not —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂-4-morpholinyl. In yetother embodiments, R¹ is not —CH₂COOH. In yet other embodiments, R¹ isnot —CH₂CH₂COOH. In yet other embodiments, R¹ is not —CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH.

In certain embodiments, R² is H or —OR.

In certain embodiments, R³ is selected from the group consisting of H,C₆-C₁₀ aryl, and —OR. In other embodiments, R³ is H, unsubstitutedphenyl, phenyl substituted with 1 substituent selected from the groupconsisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, halogen, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, and —OR″, wherein R″is unsubstituted phenyl or phenyl substituted with 1 group independentlyselected from the group consisting of —OR and —C(═O)OR. In yet otherembodiments, R³ is H, 4-methoxyphenyl, 4-(2-methoxy(ethoxy))phenyl,4-carboxyphenyl, or phenoxy.

In certain embodiments, one of R² and R³ is -L-R¹¹. In otherembodiments, L is O or NH.

In certain embodiments, R² and an optional substituent in R¹¹ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁-C₆ alkoxy,C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, carboxy, carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, amino-C₁-C₆alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkyl, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkyl,amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆alkyl, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, 4-10 memberedheterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, amino-C₁-C₆alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy,di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, 4-10 memberedheterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy,carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, andcarboxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy. In other embodiments, R³ is H, —OR,or C₁-C₆ alkyl substituted with one or more substituents selected from—OR, —C(═O)OR, and —NRR.

In certain embodiments, R⁴ is H or C₁-C₆ alkyl. In other embodiments, R⁴is selected from the group consisting of H, F, methyl, and ethyl.

In certain embodiments, R⁵ is H or C₁-C₆ alkyl. In other embodiments, R⁵is selected from the group consisting of H, F, methyl, and ethyl.

In certain embodiments, R⁶ is H. In other embodiments, R⁷ is halogen,C₁-C₆ alkyl, or —OR. In yet other embodiments, R⁸ is —OH, halogen, —CN,—OR, —NRR, or —C(═O)NRR. In yet other embodiments, R⁹ is H or halogen.In yet other embodiments, R¹⁰ is H. In yet other embodiments, R⁶, R⁷,R⁹, and R¹⁰ are each independently selected from the group consisting ofH and F. In yet other embodiments, R⁸ is selected from the groupconsisting of H, F, Cl, and —OH.

The compounds described herein can form salts with acids and/or bases,and such salts are included in the present invention. In certain otherembodiments, the salts are pharmaceutically acceptable salts. The term“salts” embraces addition salts of free acids and/or bases that areuseful within the methods of the invention. Pharmaceuticallyunacceptable salts may nonetheless possess properties such as highcrystallinity, which have utility in the practice of the presentinvention, such as for example utility in process of synthesis,purification or formulation of compounds useful within the methods ofthe invention.

Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts may be preparedfrom an inorganic acid or from an organic acid. Examples of inorganicacids include sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, hemisulfate, hydrochloric,hydrobromic, hydriodic, nitric, carbonic, sulfuric, and phosphoric acids(including hydrogen phosphate and dihydrogen phosphate). Appropriateorganic acids may be selected from aliphatic, cycloaliphatic, aromatic,araliphatic, heterocyclic, carboxylic and sulfonic classes of organicacids, examples of which include formic, acetic, propionic, succinic,glycolic, gluconic, lactic, malic, tartaric, citric, ascorbic,glucuronic, maleic, fumaric, pyruvic, aspartic, glutamic, benzoic,anthranilic, 4-hydroxybenzoic, phenylacetic, mandelic, embonic (pamoic),methanesulfonic, ethanesulfonic, benzenesulfonic, pantothenic,trifluoromethanesulfonic, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic, p-toluenesulfonic,sulfanilic, cyclohexylaminosulfonic, stearic, alginic, β-hydroxybutyric,salicylic, galactaric, galacturonic acid, glycerophosphonic acids andsaccharin (e.g., saccharinate, saccharate).

Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts of compounds ofthe invention include, for example, metallic salts including alkalimetal, alkaline earth metal and transition metal salts such as, forexample, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and zinc salts.Pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts also include organicsalts made from basic amines such as, for example, ammonium,N,N′-dibenzylethylene-diamine, chloroprocaine, choline, diethanolamine,ethylenediamine, meglumine (N-methylglucamine) and procaine.

All of these salts may be prepared from the corresponding compound byreacting, for example, the appropriate acid or base with the compound.Salts may be comprised of a fraction of less than one, one, or more thanone molar equivalent of acid or base with respect to any compound of theinvention.

In certain other embodiments, the at least one compound of the inventionis a component of a pharmaceutical composition further including atleast one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

The compounds of the invention may possess one or more stereocenters,and each stereocenter may exist independently in either the (R) or (S)configuration. In certain other embodiments, compounds described hereinare present in optically active or racemic forms. The compoundsdescribed herein encompass racemic, optically-active, regioisomeric andstereoisomeric forms, or combinations thereof that possess thetherapeutically useful properties described herein. Preparation ofoptically active forms is achieved in any suitable manner, including byway of non-limiting example, by resolution of the racemic form withrecrystallization techniques, synthesis from optically-active startingmaterials, chiral synthesis, or chromatographic separation using achiral stationary phase. In certain other embodiments, a mixture of oneor more isomer is utilized as the therapeutic compound described herein.In other embodiments, compounds described herein contain one or morechiral centers. These compounds are prepared by any means, includingstereoselective synthesis, enantioselective synthesis and/or separationof a mixture of enantiomers and/or diastereoisomers. Resolution ofcompounds and isomers thereof is achieved by any means including, by wayof non-limiting example, chemical processes, enzymatic processes,fractional crystallization, distillation, and chromatography.

The methods and formulations described herein include the use ofN-oxides (if appropriate), crystalline forms (also known as polymorphs),solvates, amorphous phases, and/or pharmaceutically acceptable salts ofcompounds having the structure of any compound of the invention, as wellas metabolites and active metabolites of these compounds having the sametype of activity. Solvates include water, ether (e.g., tetrahydrofuran,methyl tert-butyl ether) or alcohol (e.g., ethanol) solvates, acetatesand the like. In certain other embodiments, the compounds describedherein exist in solvated forms with pharmaceutically acceptable solventssuch as water, and ethanol. In other embodiments, the compoundsdescribed herein exist in unsolvated form.

In certain other embodiments, the compounds of the invention exist astautomers. All tautomers are included within the scope of the compoundsrecited herein.

In certain other embodiments, compounds described herein are prepared asprodrugs. A “prodrug” is an agent converted into the parent drug invivo. In certain other embodiments, upon in vivo administration, aprodrug is chemically converted to the biologically, pharmaceutically ortherapeutically active form of the compound. In other embodiments, aprodrug is enzymatically metabolized by one or more steps or processesto the biologically, pharmaceutically or therapeutically active form ofthe compound.

In certain other embodiments, sites on, for example, the aromatic ringportion of compounds of the invention are susceptible to variousmetabolic reactions. Incorporation of appropriate substituents on thearomatic ring structures may reduce, minimize or eliminate thismetabolic pathway. In certain other embodiments, the appropriatesubstituent to decrease or eliminate the susceptibility of the aromaticring to metabolic reactions is, by way of example only, a deuterium, ahalogen, or an alkyl group.

Compounds described herein also include isotopically-labeled compoundswherein one or more atoms is replaced by an atom having the same atomicnumber, but an atomic mass or mass number different from the atomic massor mass number usually found in nature. Examples of isotopes suitablefor inclusion in the compounds described herein include and are notlimited to ²H, ³H, ¹¹C, ¹³C, ¹⁴C, ³⁶Cl, ¹⁸F, ¹²³I, ¹²⁵I, ¹³N, ¹⁵N, ¹⁵O,¹⁷O, ¹⁸O, ³²P, and ³⁵S. In certain other embodiments,isotopically-labeled compounds are useful in drug and/or substratetissue distribution studies. In other embodiments, substitution withheavier isotopes such as deuterium affords greater metabolic stability(for example, increased in vivo half-life or reduced dosagerequirements). In yet other embodiments, substitution with positronemitting isotopes, such as ¹¹C, ¹⁸F, ¹⁵O and ¹³N, is useful in PositronEmission Topography (PET) studies for examining substrate receptoroccupancy. Isotopically-labeled compounds are prepared by any suitablemethod or by processes using an appropriate isotopically-labeled reagentin place of the non-labeled reagent otherwise employed.

In certain other embodiments, the compounds described herein are labeledby other means, including, but not limited to, the use of chromophoresor fluorescent moieties, bioluminescent labels, or chemiluminescentlabels.

The compounds described herein, and other related compounds havingdifferent substituents are synthesized using techniques and materialsdescribed herein and in the art. General methods for the preparation ofcompound as described herein are modified by the use of appropriatereagents and conditions, for the introduction of the various moietiesfound in the formula as provided herein.

Methods

The invention provides a method of inhibiting macrophage migrationinhibitory factor (MIF) activity in a subject. The invention furtherprovides a method of treating a disease or condition in which inhibitionof macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) activity in a subject istherapeutically beneficial. The invention further provides a method oftreating an inflammatory disease or condition in a subject. Theinvention further provides a method of treating an autoimmune disease ina subject. The invention further provides a method of treating cancer ina subject. The invention further provides a method of treating a diseaseor condition associated with high MIF expression in a subject. Theinvention further provides a method of treating anemia of chronicdisease in a subject. In certain embodiments, the method comprisesadministering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of theinvention, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or solvate thereof.

In certain embodiments, the inflammatory disease or condition isselected from the group consisting of proliferative vascular disease,acute respiratory distress syndrome, cytokine-mediated toxicity,psoriasis, interleukin-2 toxicity, appendicitis, peptic, gastric andduodenal ulcers, peritonitis, pancreatitis, ulcerative,pseudomembranous, acute and ischemic colitis, diverticulitis,epiglottitis, achalasia, cholangitis, cholecystitis, hepatitis,inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, enteritis, Whipple'sdisease, asthma, allergy, anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease,organ ischemia, reperfusion injury, organ necrosis, hay fever, sepsis,septicemia, endotoxic shock, cachexia, hyperpyrexia, eosinophilicgranuloma, granulomatosis sarcoidosis, septic abortion, epididymitis,vaginitis, prostatitis, urethritis, bronchitis, emphysema, rhinitis,cystic fibrosis, pneumonitis, alvealitis, bronchiolitis, pharyngitis,pleurisy, sinusitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virus infection,herpes infection, HIV infection, hepatitis B virus infection, hepatitisC virus infection, disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever, candidiasis,malaria, filariasis, amebiasis, hydatid cysts, burns, dermatitis,dermatomyositis, sunburn, urticaria, warts, wheals, vasulitis, angiitis,endocarditis, arteritis, atherosclerosis, thrombophlebitis,pericarditis, myocarditis, myocardial ischemia, periarteritis nodosa,rheumatic fever, Alzheimer's disease, coeliac disease, congestive heartfailure, meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, cerebralinfarction, cerebral embolism, Guillame-Barre syndrome, neuritis,neuralgia, spinal cord injury, paralysis, uveitis, arthritides,arthralgias, osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease, gout,periodontal disease, rheumatoid arthritis, synovitis, myasthenia gravis,thryoiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Goodpasture's syndrome,Behcets's syndrome, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease,ankylosing spondylitis, Berger's disease, type 1 diabetes, type 2diabetes, Berger's disease, Retier's syndrome, and Hodgkin's disease.

In certain embodiments, the autoimmune disease is selected from thegroup consisting of multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus,rheumatoid arthritis, graft versus host disease, autoimmune pulmonaryinflammation, autoimmune encephalomyelitis, Guillain-Barre syndrome,autoimmune thyroiditis, insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn'sdisease, scleroderma, psoriasis, Sjögren's syndrome, and autoimmuneinflammatory eye disease.

In certain embodiments, the cancer is a solid tumor or a hematologicalcancer.

In certain embodiments, the cancer is selected from the group consistingof prostate cancer, colon cancer, esophageal cancer, endometrial cancer,ovarian cancer, uterine cancer, renal cancer, hepatic cancer, pancreaticcancer, gastric cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, cancers of the heador neck, thyroid cancer, glioblastoma, sarcoma, bladder cancer,lymphoma, leukemia such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), acutemyelogenous leukemia (AML), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), chronicmyelogenous leukemia (CML), diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL),mantle cell lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (including relapsednon-Hodgkin's lymphoma, refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and recurrentfollicular non-Hodgkin's lymphoma), Hodgkin's lymphoma, and multiplemyeloma.

In certain embodiments, the disease or condition associated with highMIF expression is selected from the group consisting of protozoalinfection, fungal infection, bacterial infection, viral infection,anemia of chronic disease, asthma, and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Combination Therapies

The compounds of the present invention are intended to be useful in themethods of present invention in combination with one or more additionalcompounds useful for treating the diseases or disorders contemplatedwithin the invention. These additional compounds may comprise compoundsof the present invention or compounds, e.g., commercially availablecompounds, known to treat, prevent, or reduce the symptoms of thediseases or disorders contemplated within the invention.

For treating cancer and other proliferative diseases, the compounds ofthe invention can be used in combination with chemotherapeutic agents,or other anti-proliferative agents. The compounds of the invention canalso be used in combination with medical therapy such as surgery orradiotherapy, e.g., gamma-radiation, neutron beam radiotherapy, electronbeam radiotherapy, proton therapy, brachytherapy, and systemicradioactive isotopes.

For treating autoimmune or inflammatory conditions, the compound of theinvention can be administered in combination with an immune suppressantsuch as fluocinolone acetonide (RETISERT®), rimexolone (AL-2178, Vexol,Alcon), or cyclosporine (RESTASIS®).

For treating autoimmune or inflammatory conditions, the compound of theinvention can be administered in combination with one or more additionalagents selected from DEHYDREX® (Holles Labs), Civamide (Opko), sodiumhyaluronate (Vismed, Lantibio/TRB Chemedia), cyclosporine (ST-603,Sirion Therapeutics), ARG101(T) (testosterone, Argentis), AGR1012(P)(Argentis), ecabet sodium (Senju-Ista), gefarnate (Santen),15-(s)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15(S)-HETE), cevilemine,doxycycline (ALTY-0501, Alacrity), minocycline, IDESTRIN® (NP50301,Nascent Pharmaceuticals), cyclosporine A (Nova22007, Novagali),oxytetracycline (Duramycin, MOLI1901, Lantibio), CF101(2S,3S,4R,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-[6-[(3-iodophenyl)methylamino]purin-9-yl]-N-methyl-oxolane-2-carbamyl,Can-Fite Biopharma), voclosporin (LX212 or LX214, Lux Biosciences),ARG103 (Agentis), RX-10045 (synthetic resolvin analog, Resolvyx), DYN15(Dyanmis Therapeutics), rivoglitazone (DE011, Daiichi Sanko), TB4(RegeneRx), OPH-01 (Ophtalmis Monaco), PCS101 (Pericor Science), REV1-31(Evolutec), Lacritin (Senju), rebamipide (Otsuka-Novartis), OT-551(Othera), PAI-2 (University of Pennsylvania and Temple University),pilocarpine, tacrolimus, pimecrolimus (AMS981, Novartis), loteprednoletabonate, rituximab, diquafosol tetrasodium (INS365, Inspire), KLS-0611(Kissei Pharmaceuticals), dehydroepiandrosterone, anakinra, efalizumab,mycophenolate sodium, etanercept (EMBREL®), hydroxychloroquine, NGX267(TorreyPines Therapeutics), or thalidomide.

For the prophylaxis or treatment of anemia of chronic diseasecomprising, the compounds of the invention can be used in combinationwith one or more other agents that stimulate erythropoiesis such aserythropoietin (“EPO”), iron, folate, vitamin B12, blood, bloodsubstitute, and plasma or serum that contains a composition with theactivity of blood. In other embodiments, the MIF antagonist can beadministered in combination with a tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)antagonist or an interferon (IFN) antagonist (e.g., an IFNγ antagonist)to a subject. Examples of TNFα and IFNγ antagonists include, withoutlimitation, anti-TNF, soluble TNF receptor, anti-IFNγ, soluble IFNγreceptor, p38 MAPK inhibitors, and JAK-STAT inhibitors.

A synergistic effect may be calculated, for example, using suitablemethods such as, for example, the Sigmoid-E_(max) equation (Holford &Scheiner, 19981, Clin. Pharmacokinet. 6: 429-453), the equation of Loeweadditivity (Loewe & Muischnek, 1926, Arch. Exp. Pathol Pharmacol. 114:313-326) and the median-effect equation (Chou & Talalay, 1984, Adv.Enzyme Regul. 22: 27-55). Each equation referred to above may be appliedto experimental data to generate a corresponding graph to aid inassessing the effects of the drug combination. The corresponding graphsassociated with the equations referred to above are theconcentration-effect curve, isobologram curve and combination indexcurve, respectively.

Administration/Dosage/Formulations

The regimen of administration may affect what constitutes an effectiveamount. The therapeutic formulations may be administered to the subjecteither prior to or after the onset of a disease or disorder contemplatedin the invention. Further, several divided dosages, as well as staggereddosages may be administered daily or sequentially, or the dose may becontinuously infused, or may be a bolus injection. Further, the dosagesof the therapeutic formulations may be proportionally increased ordecreased as indicated by the exigencies of the therapeutic orprophylactic situation.

Administration of the compositions of the present invention to apatient, preferably a mammal, more preferably a human, may be carriedout using known procedures, at dosages and for periods of time effectiveto treat a disease or disorder contemplated in the invention. Aneffective amount of the therapeutic compound necessary to achieve atherapeutic effect may vary according to factors such as the state ofthe disease or disorder in the patient; the age, sex, and weight of thepatient; and the ability of the therapeutic compound to treat a diseaseor disorder contemplated in the invention. Dosage regimens may beadjusted to provide the optimum therapeutic response. For example,several divided doses may be administered daily or the dose may beproportionally reduced as indicated by the exigencies of the therapeuticsituation. A non-limiting example of an effective dose range for atherapeutic compound of the invention is from about 1 and 5,000 mg/kg ofbody weight/per day. The pharmaceutical compositions useful forpracticing the invention may be administered to deliver a dose of from 1ng/kg/day and 100 mg/kg/day. One of ordinary skill in the art would beable to study the relevant factors and make the determination regardingthe effective amount of the therapeutic compound without undueexperimentation.

A medical doctor, e.g., physician or veterinarian, having ordinary skillin the art may readily determine and prescribe the effective amount ofthe pharmaceutical composition required. For example, the physician orveterinarian could start doses of the compounds of the inventionemployed in the pharmaceutical composition at levels lower than thatrequired in order to achieve the desired therapeutic effect andgradually increase the dosage until the desired effect is achieved.

In particular embodiments, it is advantageous to formulate the compoundin dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage.Dosage unit form as used herein refers to physically discrete unitssuited as unitary dosages for the patients to be treated; each unitcontaining a predetermined quantity of therapeutic compound calculatedto produce the desired therapeutic effect in association with therequired pharmaceutical vehicle.

In certain other embodiments, the compositions of the invention areformulated using one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients orcarriers. In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions of theinvention comprise a therapeutically effective amount of a compound ofthe invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In yet otherembodiments, the compound of the invention is the only biologicallyactive agent (i.e., capable of treating or preventing diseases anddisorders discussed herein) in the composition. In yet otherembodiments, the compound of the invention is the only biologicallyactive agent (i.e., capable of treating or preventing diseases anddisorders discussed herein) in therapeutically effective amounts in thecomposition.

In certain other embodiments, the compositions of the invention areadministered to the patient in dosages that range from one to five timesper day or more. In other embodiments, the compositions of the inventionare administered to the patient in range of dosages that include, butare not limited to, once every day, every two days, every three days toonce a week, and once every two weeks. It is readily apparent to oneskilled in the art that the frequency of administration of the variouscombination compositions of the invention varies from individual toindividual depending on many factors including, but not limited to, age,disease or disorder to be treated, gender, overall health, and otherfactors. Thus, the invention should not be construed to be limited toany particular dosage regime and the precise dosage and composition tobe administered to any patient is determined by the attending physicaltaking all other factors about the patient into account.

Compounds of the invention for administration may be in the range offrom about 1 μg to about 10,000 mg, about 20 μg to about 9,500 mg, about40 μg to about 9,000 mg, about 75 μg to about 8,500 mg, about 150 μg toabout 7,500 mg, about 200 μg to about 7,000 mg, about 300 μg to about6,000 mg, about 500 μg to about 5,000 mg, about 750 μg to about 4,000mg, about 1 mg to about 3,000 mg, about 10 mg to about 2,500 mg, about20 mg to about 2,000 mg, about 25 mg to about 1,500 mg, about 30 mg toabout 1,000 mg, about 40 mg to about 900 mg, about 50 mg to about 800mg, about 60 mg to about 750 mg, about 70 mg to about 600 mg, about 80mg to about 500 mg, and any and all whole or partial incrementsthereinbetween.

In some embodiments, the dose of a compound of the invention is fromabout 1 mg and about 2,500 mg. In some embodiments, a dose of a compoundof the invention used in compositions described herein is less thanabout 10,000 mg, or less than about 8,000 mg, or less than about 6,000mg, or less than about 5,000 mg, or less than about 3,000 mg, or lessthan about 2,000 mg, or less than about 1,000 mg, or less than about 500mg, or less than about 200 mg, or less than about 50 mg. Similarly, insome embodiments, a dose of a second compound as described herein isless than about 1,000 mg, or less than about 800 mg, or less than about600 mg, or less than about 500 mg, or less than about 400 mg, or lessthan about 300 mg, or less than about 200 mg, or less than about 100 mg,or less than about 50 mg, or less than about 40 mg, or less than about30 mg, or less than about 25 mg, or less than about 20 mg, or less thanabout 15 mg, or less than about 10 mg, or less than about 5 mg, or lessthan about 2 mg, or less than about 1 mg, or less than about 0.5 mg, andany and all whole or partial increments thereof.

In certain other embodiments, the present invention is directed to apackaged pharmaceutical composition comprising a container holding atherapeutically effective amount of a compound of the invention, aloneor in combination with a second pharmaceutical agent; and instructionsfor using the compound to treat, prevent, or reduce one or more symptomsof a disease or disorder contemplated in the invention.

Formulations may be employed in admixtures with conventional excipients,i.e., pharmaceutically acceptable organic or inorganic carriersubstances suitable for oral, parenteral, nasal, intravenous,subcutaneous, enteral, or any other suitable mode of administration,known to the art. The pharmaceutical preparations may be sterilized andif desired mixed with auxiliary agents, e.g., lubricants, preservatives,stabilizers, wetting agents, emulsifiers, salts for influencing osmoticpressure buffers, coloring, flavoring and/or aromatic substances and thelike. They may also be combined where desired with other active agents.

Routes of administration of any of the compositions of the inventioninclude intravitreal, oral, nasal, rectal, intravaginal, parenteral,buccal, sublingual or topical. The compounds for use in the inventionmay be formulated for administration by any suitable route, such as fororal or parenteral, for example, transdermal, transmucosal (e.g.,sublingual, lingual, (trans)buccal, (trans)urethral, vaginal (e.g.,trans- and perivaginally), (intra)nasal and (trans)rectal),intravitreal, intravesical, intrapulmonary, intraduodenal,intragastrical, intrathecal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intradermal,intra-arterial, intravenous, intrabronchial, inhalation, and topicaladministration.

Suitable compositions and dosage forms include, for example, tablets,capsules, caplets, pills, gel caps, troches, dispersions, suspensions,solutions, syrups, granules, beads, transdermal patches, gels, powders,pellets, magmas, lozenges, creams, pastes, plasters, lotions, discs,suppositories, liquid sprays for nasal or oral administration, drypowder or aerosolized formulations for inhalation, compositions andformulations for intravesical administration and the like. It should beunderstood that the formulations and compositions that would be usefulin the present invention are not limited to the particular formulationsand compositions that are described herein.

Oral Administration

For oral application, particularly suitable are tablets, dragees,liquids, drops, suppositories, or capsules, caplets and gelcaps. Otherformulations suitable for oral administration include, but are notlimited to, a powdered or granular formulation, an aqueous or oilysuspension, an aqueous or oily solution, a paste, a gel, toothpaste, amouthwash, a coating, an oral rinse, or an emulsion. The compositionsintended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known inthe art and such compositions may contain one or more agents selectedfrom the group consisting of inert, non-toxic pharmaceuticallyexcipients that are suitable for the manufacture of tablets. Suchexcipients include, for example an inert diluent such as lactose;granulating and disintegrating agents such as cornstarch; binding agentssuch as starch; and lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate.

Tablets may be non-coated or they may be coated using known methods toachieve delayed disintegration in the gastrointestinal tract of asubject, thereby providing sustained release and absorption of theactive ingredient. By way of example, a material such as glycerylmonostearate or glyceryl distearate may be used to coat tablets. Furtherby way of example, tablets may be coated using methods described in U.S.Pat. Nos. 4,256,108; 4,160,452; and 4,265,874 to form osmoticallycontrolled release tablets. Tablets may further comprise a sweeteningagent, a flavoring agent, a coloring agent, a preservative, or somecombination of these in order to provide for pharmaceutically elegantand palatable preparation.

Parenteral Administration

As used herein, “parenteral administration” of a pharmaceuticalcomposition includes any route of administration characterized byphysical breaching of a tissue of a subject and administration of thepharmaceutical composition through the breach in the tissue. Parenteraladministration thus includes, but is not limited to, administration of apharmaceutical composition by injection of the composition, byapplication of the composition through a surgical incision, byapplication of the composition through a tissue-penetrating non-surgicalwound, and the like. In particular, parenteral administration iscontemplated to include, but is not limited to, subcutaneous,intravenous, intravitreal, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intrasternalinjection, and kidney dialytic infusion techniques.

Topical Administration

An obstacle for topical administration of pharmaceuticals is the stratumcorneum layer of the epidermis. The stratum corneum is a highlyresistant layer comprised of protein, cholesterol, sphingolipids, freefatty acids and various other lipids, and includes cornified and livingcells. One of the factors that limit the penetration rate (flux) of acompound through the stratum corneum is the amount of the activesubstance that can be loaded or applied onto the skin surface. Thegreater the amount of active substance which is applied per unit of areaof the skin, the greater the concentration gradient between the skinsurface and the lower layers of the skin, and in turn the greater thediffusion force of the active substance through the skin. Therefore, aformulation containing a greater concentration of the active substanceis more likely to result in penetration of the active substance throughthe skin, and more of it, and at a more consistent rate, than aformulation having a lesser concentration, all other things being equal.

Formulations suitable for topical administration include, but are notlimited to, liquid or semi-liquid preparations such as liniments,lotions, oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions such as creams,ointments or pastes, and solutions or suspensions. Topicallyadministrable formulations may, for example, comprise from about 1% toabout 10% (w/w) active ingredient, although the concentration of theactive ingredient may be as high as the solubility limit of the activeingredient in the solvent. Formulations for topical administration mayfurther comprise one or more of the additional ingredients describedherein.

Enhancers of permeation may be used. These materials increase the rateof penetration of drugs across the skin. Typical enhancers in the artinclude ethanol, glycerol monolaurate, PGML (polyethylene glycolmonolaurate), dimethylsulfoxide, and the like. Other enhancers includeoleic acid, oleyl alcohol, ethoxydiglycol, laurocapram, alkanecarboxylicacids, dimethylsulfoxide, polar lipids, or N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone.

One acceptable vehicle for topical delivery of some of the compositionsof the invention may contain liposomes. The composition of the liposomesand their use are known in the art (for example, see U.S. Pat. No.6,323,219).

In alternative embodiments, the topically active pharmaceuticalcomposition may be optionally combined with other ingredients such asadjuvants, anti-oxidants, chelating agents, surfactants, foaming agents,wetting agents, emulsifying agents, viscosifiers, buffering agents,preservatives, and the like. In another embodiment, a permeation orpenetration enhancer is included in the composition and is effective inimproving the percutaneous penetration of the active ingredient into andthrough the stratum corneum with respect to a composition lacking thepermeation enhancer. Various permeation enhancers, including oleic acid,oleyl alcohol, ethoxydiglycol, laurocapram, alkanecarboxylic acids,dimethylsulfoxide, polar lipids, or N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, are known tothose of skill in the art. In another aspect, the composition mayfurther comprise a hydrotropic agent, which functions to increasedisorder in the structure of the stratum corneum, and thus allowsincreased transport across the stratum corneum. Various hydrotropicagents such as isopropyl alcohol, propylene glycol, or sodium xylenesulfonate, are known to those of skill in the art.

The topically active pharmaceutical composition should be applied in anamount effective to affect desired changes. As used herein “amounteffective” shall mean an amount sufficient to cover the region of skinsurface where a change is desired. An active compound should be presentin the amount of from about 0.0001% to about 15% by weight volume of thecomposition. More preferable, it should be present in an amount fromabout 0.0005% to about 5% of the composition; most preferably, it shouldbe present in an amount of from about 0.001% to about 1% of thecomposition. Such compounds may be synthetically-or naturally derived.

Buccal Administration

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged,or sold in a formulation suitable for buccal administration. Suchformulations may, for example, be in the form of tablets or lozengesmade using conventional methods, and may contain, for example, 0.1 to20% (w/w) of the active ingredient, the balance comprising an orallydissolvable or degradable composition and, optionally, one or more ofthe additional ingredients described herein. Alternately, formulationssuitable for buccal administration may comprise a powder or anaerosolized or atomized solution or suspension comprising the activeingredient. Such powdered, aerosolized, or aerosolized formulations,when dispersed, preferably have an average particle or droplet size inthe range from about 0.1 to about 200 nanometers, and may furthercomprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein. Theexamples of formulations described herein are not exhaustive and it isunderstood that the invention includes additional modifications of theseand other formulations not described herein, but which are known tothose of skill in the art.

Rectal Administration

A pharmaceutical composition of the invention may be prepared, packaged,or sold in a formulation suitable for rectal administration. Such acomposition may be in the form of, for example, a suppository, aretention enema preparation, and a solution for rectal or colonicirrigation.

Suppository formulations may be made by combining the active ingredientwith a non-irritating pharmaceutically acceptable excipient that issolid at ordinary room temperature (i.e., about 20° C.) and liquid atthe rectal temperature of the subject (i.e., about 37° C. in a healthyhuman). Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include, but arenot limited to, cocoa butter, polyethylene glycols, and variousglycerides. Suppository formulations may further comprise variousadditional ingredients including, but not limited to, antioxidants, andpreservatives.

Retention enema preparations or solutions for rectal or colonicirrigation may be made by combining the active ingredient with apharmaceutically acceptable liquid carrier. As is well known in the art,enema preparations may be administered using, and may be packagedwithin, a delivery device adapted to the rectal anatomy of the subject.Enema preparations may further comprise various additional ingredientsincluding, but not limited to, antioxidants, and preservatives.

Controlled Release Formulations and Drug Delivery Systems

In certain other embodiments, the formulations of the present inventionmay be, but are not limited to, short-term, rapid-offset, as well ascontrolled, for example, sustained release, delayed release andpulsatile release formulations.

The term sustained release is used in its conventional sense to refer toa drug formulation that provides for gradual release of a drug over anextended period of time, and that may, although not necessarily, resultin substantially constant blood levels of a drug over an extended timeperiod. The period of time may be as long as a month or more and shouldbe a release which is longer that the same amount of agent administeredin bolus form. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the inventioncan be formulated for sustained release over a period of 3-12 months.

For sustained release, the compounds may be formulated with a suitablepolymer or hydrophobic material that provides sustained releaseproperties to the compounds. As such, the compounds useful within themethods of the invention may be administered in the form ofmicroparticles, for example by injection, or in the form of wafers ordiscs by implantation.

In one embodiment of the invention, the compounds of the invention areadministered to a patient, alone or in combination with anotherpharmaceutical agent, using a sustained release formulation.

The term delayed release is used herein in its conventional sense torefer to a drug formulation that provides for an initial release of thedrug after some delay following drug administration and that may,although not necessarily, includes a delay of from about 10 minutes upto about 12 hours.

The term pulsatile release is used herein in its conventional sense torefer to a drug formulation that provides release of the drug in such away as to produce pulsed plasma profiles of the drug after drugadministration.

The term immediate release is used in its conventional sense to refer toa drug formulation that provides for release of the drug immediatelyafter drug administration.

As used herein, short-term refers to any period of time up to andincluding about 8 hours, about 7 hours, about 6 hours, about 5 hours,about 4 hours, about 3 hours, about 2 hours, about 1 hour, about 40minutes, about 20 minutes, about 10 minutes, or about 1 minute and anyor all whole or partial increments thereof after drug administrationafter drug administration.

As used herein, rapid-offset refers to any period of time up to andincluding about 8 hours, about 7 hours, about 6 hours, about 5 hours,about 4 hours, about 3 hours, about 2 hours, about 1 hour, about 40minutes, about 20 minutes, about 10 minutes, or about 1 minute and anyand all whole or partial increments thereof after drug administration.

Dosing

The therapeutically effective amount or dose of a compound of thepresent invention depends on the age, sex and weight of the patient, thecurrent medical condition of the patient and the progression of adisease or disorder contemplated in the invention. The skilled artisanis able to determine appropriate dosages depending on these and otherfactors.

A suitable dose of a compound of the present invention may be in therange of from about 0.01 mg to about 5,000 mg per day, such as fromabout 0.1 mg to about 1,000 mg, for example, from about 1 mg to about500 mg, such as about 5 mg to about 250 mg per day. The dose may beadministered in a single dosage or in multiple dosages, for example from1 to 5 or more times per day. When multiple dosages are used, the amountof each dosage may be the same or different. For example, a dose of 1 mgper day may be administered as two 0.5 mg doses, with about a 12-hourinterval between doses.

It is understood that the amount of compound dosed per day may beadministered, in non-limiting examples, every day, every other day,every 2 days, every 3 days, every 4 days, or every 5 days.

In the case wherein the patient's status does improve, upon the doctor'sdiscretion the administration of the inhibitor of the invention isoptionally given continuously; alternatively, the dose of drug beingadministered is temporarily reduced or temporarily suspended for acertain length of time (i.e., a “drug holiday”). The length of the drugholiday optionally varies between 2 days and 1 year, including by way ofexample only, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days, 10 days,12 days, 15 days, 20 days, 28 days, 35 days, 50 days, 70 days, 100 days,120 days, 150 days, 180 days, 200 days, 250 days, 280 days, 300 days,320 days, 350 days, or 365 days. The dose reduction during a drugholiday includes from 10%-100%, including, by way of example only, 10%,15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%,85%, 90%, 95%, or 100%.

Once improvement of the patient's conditions has occurred, a maintenancedose is administered if necessary. Subsequently, the dosage or thefrequency of administration, or both, is reduced, as a function of thedisease or disorder, to a level at which the improved disease isretained. In certain other embodiments, patients require intermittenttreatment on a long-term basis upon any recurrence of symptoms and/orinfection.

The compounds for use in the method of the invention may be formulatedin unit dosage form. The term “unit dosage form” refers to physicallydiscrete units suitable as unitary dosage for patients undergoingtreatment, with each unit containing a predetermined quantity of activematerial calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect,optionally in association with a suitable pharmaceutical carrier. Theunit dosage form may be for a single daily dose or one of multiple dailydoses (e.g., about 1 to 5 or more times per day). When multiple dailydoses are used, the unit dosage form may be the same or different foreach dose.

Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such therapeutic regimens areoptionally determined in cell cultures or experimental animals,including, but not limited to, the determination of the LD₅₀ (the doselethal to 50% of the population) and the ED₅₀ (the dose therapeuticallyeffective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between the toxicand therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index, which is expressed asthe ratio between LD₅₀ and ED₅₀. The data obtained from cell cultureassays and animal studies are optionally used in formulating a range ofdosage for use in human. The dosage of such compounds lies preferablywithin a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED₅₀ withminimal toxicity. The dosage optionally varies within this rangedepending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administrationutilized.

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain usingno more than routine experimentation, numerous equivalents to thespecific procedures, embodiments, claims, and examples described herein.Such equivalents were considered to be within the scope of thisinvention and covered by the claims appended hereto. For example, itshould be understood, that modifications in reaction conditions,including but not limited to reaction times, reaction size/volume, andexperimental reagents, such as solvents, catalysts, pressures,atmospheric conditions, e.g., nitrogen atmosphere, andreducing/oxidizing agents, with art-recognized alternatives and using nomore than routine experimentation, are within the scope of the presentapplication.

The following examples further illustrate aspects of the presentinvention. However, they are in no way a limitation of the teachings ordisclosure of the present invention as set forth herein.

EXAMPLES

The invention is now described with reference to the following Examples.These Examples are provided for the purpose of illustration only, andthe invention is not limited to these Examples, but rather encompassesall variations that are evident as a result of the teachings providedherein.

Materials and Methods

NMR spectra were recorded on Agilent DD2 600 (600 MHz), DD2 500 (500MHz) and DD2 400 (400 MHz) instruments. Column chromatography wascarried out using CombiFlash over redisep column cartridges employingMerck silica gel (Kieselgel 60, 63-200 μm). Pre-coated silica gel platesF-254 were used for thin-layer analytical chromatography. HRMS (ESI-TOF)analyses were performed on Waters Xevo QTOF equipped with Z-sprayelectrospray ionization source. The purity (≥95%) of all finalsynthesized compounds was determined by reverse phase HPLC, using aWaters 2487 dual λ absorbance detector with a Waters 1525 binary pumpand a Phenomenex Luna 5μ C18(2) 250×4.6 mm column. Samples were run at 1mL/min using gradient mixtures of 5-100% of water with 0.1%trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) (A) and 10:1 acetonitrile:water with 0.1% TFA(B) for 22 min followed by 3 min at 100% B.

Example 1: Synthesis of Compounds 3 and 4

General procedure a: K₂CO₃ (2.0 eq.) was added to a solution of1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one (1.0 eq.) in anhydrous DMF (0.1 M), followedby the addition of iodomethane or ethyl bromoacetate (4.0 eq.). Thereaction was stirred at room temperature for 15 h. After evaporation ofDMF, the desired intermediate was purified by flash chromatography(DCM/MeOH).7-methyl-1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one (5). Yield 88%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz,Chloroform-d) δ 8.85 (dd, J=4.3, 1.7 Hz, 1H), 7.89 (dd, J=8.1, 1.7 Hz,1H), 7.54 (dd, J=8.1, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.43 (d,J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 3.66 (s, 3H). MS (ESI) m/z 161.1 [M+H].Ethyl 2-(8-oxo-1,7-naphthyridin-7(8H)-yl)acetate (6). Yield 88%. ¹H NMR(400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.88 (dd, J=4.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.88 (dd, J=8.1,1.7 Hz, 1H), 7.55 (dd, J=8.1, 4.4 Hz, 1H), 7.10 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.47(d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 4.80 (s, 2H), 4.25 (q, J=7.1 Hz, 2H), 1.29 (t, J=7.1Hz, 3H). MS (ESI) m/z 233.1 [M+H].General procedure b: mCPBA (1.5 eq.) was added in one portion to asolution of the corresponding substituted naphthyridinone (1.0 eq.) inanhydrous DCM (0.1 M) and the reaction stirred for 15 h at roomtemperature. DCM was evaporated and the intermediate purified by flashchromatography (DCM/MeOH).7-methyl-8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-1,7-naphthyridine 1-oxide (7). Yield 70%. ¹HNMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.28 (dd, J=6.3, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (dd,J=8.2, 6.3 Hz, 1H), 7.22 (dd, J=8.1, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.18 (d, J=7.3 Hz,1H), 6.31 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 3.56 (s, 3H). MS (ESI) m/z 177.1 [M+H].7-(2-ethoxy-2-oxoethyl)-8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-1,7-naphthyridine 1-oxide (8).Yield 81%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.30 (dd, J=6.4, 1.1 Hz,1H), 7.34 (dd, J=8.1, 6.4 Hz, 1H), 7.23 (dd, J=8.1, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.11(d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 6.36 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 4.64 (s, 2H), 4.24 (q, J=7.1Hz, 2H), 1.29 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H). MS (ESI) m/z 249.1 [M+H].General procedure c: Oxalyl chloride (2.0 eq.) was added dropwise to asolution of the corresponding naphthyridinone N-oxide (1.0 eq.) inanhydrous DMF (0.1 M) at 0° C. The mixture was allowed to warm to roomtemperature and stirred for 5 h. After solvent evaporation, theintermediate was purified by flash chromatography (DCM/MeOH).2-chloro-7-methyl-1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one (9). Yield 57%. ¹H NMR (400MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.83 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.53 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H),7.20 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.42 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 3.66 (s, 3H). MS (ESI)m/z 195.0 [M+H].Ethyl 2-(2-chloro-8-oxo-1,7-naphthyridin-7(8H)-yl)acetate (10). Yield68%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.84 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.55 (d,J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 7.14 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.46 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 4.77 (s,2H), 4.24 (q, J=7.1 Hz, 2H), 1.29 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H). MS (ESI) m/z 267.0[M+H].General procedure d: Corresponding chloro-naphthyridinone (1.0 eq.) wasdissolved in anhydrous DMF (0.57 M, degassed by purging with N2 whilesonicating for 15 min) in a pressure vial. TEA (4.0 eq., degassedseparately) was added, followed by Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (0.1 eq.) and CuI (0.1eq.). Finally, TMS-acetylene (2.0 eq.) was added, the vial sealed, andthe mixture stirred 15 h at 60° C. The DMF was evaporated and theintermediate purified by flash chromatography (DCM/MeOH).7-methyl-2-((trimethylsilyl)ethynyl)-1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one (11).Yield 39%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, Methanol-d) δ 8.06 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H), 7.73(d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H), 7.49 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.64 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 3.64(s, 3H), 0.27 (s, 9H). MS (ESI) m/z 257.1 [M+H].Ethyl2-(8-oxo-2-((trimethylsilyl)ethynyl)-1,7-naphthyridin-7(8H)-yl)acetate(12). Yield 60%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.78 (d, J=8.3 Hz,1H), 7.61 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H), 7.10 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.40 (d, J=7.4 Hz,1H), 4.74 (s, 2H), 4.20 (q, J=7.1 Hz, 2H), 1.25 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H), 0.24(s, 9H). MS (ESI) m/z 329.1 [M+H].General procedure e: TBAF (1.25 eq., 1.0 M in THF) was added dropwise tothe TMS-protected alkynyl naphthyridinone (1.0 eq.) dissolved inanhydrous DMF (0.1 M) and the reaction stirred 30 min at roomtemperature. The DMF was evaporated and the intermediate purified byflash chromatography (DCM/MeOH).2-ethynyl-7-methyl-1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one (13). Yield 47%. ¹H NMR(400 MHz, Methanol-d⁴) δ 8.10 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H), 7.78 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H),7.51 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.67 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 3.87 (s, 1H), 3.65 (s,3H). MS (ESI) m/z 185.1 [M+H].Ethyl 2-(2-ethynyl-8-oxo-1,7-naphthyridin-7(8H)-yl)acetate (14). Yield23%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.79 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H), 7.59 (d,J=8.2 Hz, 1H), 7.15 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 6.40 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 4.74 (s,2H), 4.16 (q, J=7.1 Hz, 2H), 3.19 (s, 1H), 1.21 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H). MS(ESI) m/z 257.1 [M+H].General procedure f: Trans-N,N′-dimethyl-1,2-cyclohexanediamine (0.4eq.), 4-iodophenol or 2-fluoro-4-iodophenol (2.0 eq.), NaN₃ (2.0 eq.),sodium ascorbate (0.8 eq.), and CuI (0.4 eq.) were dissolved in DMSO(0.31 M, degassed). The mixture was stirred at 70° C. in a sealedpressure vial for 2 h. Next, the corresponding alkynyl naphthyridinone(1.0 eq.) was added, transferred with additional DMSO (0.46 M). Finally,H₂O was added (0.92 M), and the reaction stirred overnight at 70° C. Thereaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo and purified by flashchromatography (DCM/MeOH) to yield the desired final products.2-(1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-7-methyl-1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one(3a). Using 4-iodophenol (0.071 g, 0.32 mmol). Yield 23%. ¹H NMR (400MHz, DMSO-d⁶) δ 10.03 (bs, 1H), 9.23 (s, 1H), 8.39 (s, 1H), 8.26 (d,J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.82 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 6.97 (d,J=8.4 Hz, 2H), 6.67 (s, 1H), 3.57 (s, 3H). ¹³C NMR (151 MHz, DMSO-d⁶) δ160.1, 158.0, 148.9, 147.6, 140.9, 135.9, 134.8, 132.8, 128.6, 123.1,122.2, 121.5, 116.0, 102.9, 36.9. HRMS (ESI): calc. for [M+H]⁺C₁₇H₁₄N₅O₂ 320.1142, found 320.1147.2-(1-(3-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-7-methyl-1,7-naphthyridin-8(7H)-one(4a). Using 2-fluoro-4-iodophenol (0.085 g, 0.36 mmol). Yield 20%. ¹HNMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d⁶) δ 10.50 (bs, 1H), 9.27 (s, 1H), 8.38 (d, J=8.4Hz, 1H), 8.24 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.97 (dd, J=11.9, 2.6 Hz, 1H), 7.73(ddd, J=8.7, 2.6, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 7.60 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.14 (t, J=9.0Hz, 1H), 6.65 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 3.56 (s, 3H). ¹³C NMR (126 MHz,DMSO-d⁶) δ 160.1, 150.7 (d, J=242.6 Hz), 148.8, 147.7, 145.7 (d, J=12.0Hz), 140.9, 136.0, 134.9, 132.9, 128.2 (d, J=9.1 Hz), 123.1, 121.7,118.2 (d, J=3.9 Hz), 117.0 (d, J=3.3 Hz), 109.5 (d, J=23.3 Hz), 102.9,37.0. HRMS (ESI): calc. for [M+H]⁺ C₁₇H₁₃FN₅O₂ 338.1048, found 338.1053.Synthesis of final compound 4b: Compound 4b has been obtained byhydrolysis of the corresponding ethyl ester precursor (method g). 15(1.0 eq.) was dissolved in 1,4-dioxane (0.013 M), and 2.0 M NaOH (25eq.) was added. After the reaction was stirred 15 h at room temperature,dioxane was evaporated and the remaining mixture diluted in H₂O. The pHwas adjusted to 3 using 1 N HCl, and the solution extracted three timeswith EtOAc. The combined organic layers were dried over anhydrous Na₂SO₄and concentrated. Purification by flash chromatography (DCM/MeOH)afforded the final product.

Ethyl2-(2-(1-(3-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-8-oxo-1,7-naphthyridin-7(8H)-yl)acetate(15). According to general procedure f using 2-fluoro-4-iodophenol.Yield 60%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d⁶) δ 10.59 (bs, 1H), 9.28 (s, 1H),8.43 (s, 1H), 8.29 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H), 7.96 (d, J=11.8 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (d,J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.60 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H), 7.15 (t, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 6.78-6.68(m, 1H), 4.83 (s, 2H), 4.17 (q, J=7.0 Hz, 2H), 1.23 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H).MS (ESI) m/z 410.1 [M+H].

2-(2-(1-(3-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)-8-oxo-1,7-naphthyridin-7(8H)-yl)aceticacid (4b). Yield quantitative. ¹H NMR (600 MHz, DMSO-d⁶) δ 10.68 (bs,1H), 9.27 (s, 1H), 8.38 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 8.25 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.96(dd, J=11.9, 2.6 Hz, 1H), 7.72 (ddd, J=8.6, 2.7, 1.1 Hz, 1H), 7.49 (d,J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 7.17 (t, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 6.62 (d, J=7.2 Hz, 1H), 4.51 (s,2H). ¹³C NMR (151 MHz, DMSO-d⁶) δ 169.6, 160.2, 151.2 (d, J=242.6 Hz),148.9, 148.1, 146.1 (d, J=11.5 Hz), 141.5, 136.3, 135.8, 133.4, 128.6(d, J=8.4 Hz), 123.5, 122.1, 118.6 (d, J=4.0 Hz), 117.4 (d, J=3.4 Hz),109.9 (d, J=23.4 Hz), 102.6, 52.1. HRMS (ESI): calc. for [M+H]⁺C₁₈H₁₃FN₅O₄ 382.0946, found 382.0952.

Example 2: Protein Crystallography

Crystallization of MIF in complex with 3a, 4a and 4b:

Recombinant expression and purification of MIF was performed as reportedpreviously (Dziedzic, et al., 2015, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137:2996-3003).Co-crystallization of MIF in complex with 3a, 4a and 4b was performed bysitting drop vapor diffusion at 20° C. 2 μL of MIF (20 mg/mL) in asolution composed of 50 mM TRIS pH 7.4 and 150 mM NaCl was added to 2 μLof reservoir solution containing a 2 mM suspension of the respectiveligand taken from a 50 mM DMSO stock solution. For 3a, a reservoir of2.6 M (NH₄)₂SO₄, 0.1 M Tris pH 7.0 and 3% isopropanol was used. 4a and4b crystallized in a reservoir solution composed of 2.1 M (NH₄)₂SO₄, 0.1M Tris pH 7.5 and 3% isopropanol. Crystals grew to full size within oneweek. Prior to data collection, crystals were cryoprotected by immersionwith a cryo buffer composed of the respective reservoir solutioncontaining 25% glycerol, and flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen.

Data Collection and Processing:

Diffraction data for 3a and 4b were collected with synchrotron radiationat the Advanced Photon Source (Argonne, Ill., USA). Dataset 3a wascollected at beamline 24-ID-E with a wavelength of 0.97918 Å on an Eiger16M detector at a temperature of 100 K. Dataset 4b was collected atbeamline 24-ID-C with a wavelength of 0.97920 Å on an Pilatus 6Mdetector at 100 K. Dataset 4a was collected in-house on a Rigaku 007 HF+X-ray diffractometer equipped with a Cu rotating anode and a Saturn 944+CCD detector at a wavelength of 1.54178 Å at 100 K. Indexing,integration and scaling of datasets 3a and 4b were performed with XDS(Kabsch, 2010, Acta Crystallogr. Sect. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66:125-132),whereas processing of dataset 4a was performed with HKL2000 (Otwinowski& Minor, 1997, Methods Enzymol. 276:307-326). Data collection andrefinement statistics are given in Table 2.

Structure Determination and Refinement:

All three structures were determined by molecular replacement with theprogram PHASER (McCoy, et al., 2007, J. Appl. Crystallogr. 40:658-674)as included into CCP4i version 7.0.043 (Winn, et al., 2011, ActaCrystallogr. Sect. D Biol. Crystallogr. 67:235-242), applying a 1.9 Åcrystal structure of MIF (PDB ID 3U18) with truncated flexible sidechains as a search model (Bai, et al., 2012, J. Biol. Chem.287:30653-30663). Crystal structure refinement was performed withPHENIX.REFINE version 1.11.1-2575 (Adams, et al., 2010, ActaCrystallogr. Sect. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66:213-221), manual modelbuilding was performed with COOT (Emsley, et al., 2010, ActaCrystallogr. Sect. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66:486-501). A randomly chosensubset of 5% of the reflections was excluded from the refinement andused for the calculation of R_(free). Initially, Cartesian simulatedannealing (default temperatures) was performed, followed by refinementof x, y, z coordinates, occupancies and individual ADPs. Depending onthe improvement of R_(free), APDs were treated anisotropically (3a),with isotropic TLS groups (4b) or isotropically without the applicationof TLS groups (4a). TLS groups were identified by the TLSMD web server(Painter & Merritt, 2006, J. Appl. Crystallogr. 39:109-111). Refinementof the high-resolution crystal structure 3a was carried out with theaddition of riding hydrogen atoms. SMILES codes of the ligands used forthe generation of ligand restraints were generated with theMOLINSPIRATION web server (www dot molinspiration dot com). Restraintsfor 3a were generated with the GRADE web server (Smart, et al., GRADE,Version v1.102. www dot globalphasing dot com, 2011) and for 4a and 4bwith PHENIX.ELBOW (Moriarty, et al., 2009, Acta Crystallogr., Sect. DBiol. Crystallogr. 65:1074-1080).

TABLE 2 Data collection and refinement statistics^(a) MIF—ligand complex(PDB code) 3a (6B1K) 4a (6B1C) 4b (6B2C) (A) Data collection andprocessing Space group I4₁22 P3₁21 P3₁21 Unit cell parameters: a, b, c(Å) 116.9, 116.9,102.2 96.0, 96.0, 104.1 97.4, 97.4, 105.6 Matthewscoefficient (Å³/Da)^(b) 2.3 2.3 2.3 Solvent content (%)^(b) 47 47 47 (B)Diffraction data Resolution range (Å) 200.00-1.17 50.00-2.16 200.00-2.00  (1.23-1.17)  (2.20-2.16)  (2.12-2.00) Unique reflections 118139(16818) 28763/1067 38918/5897 R(I)_(sym) (%)  5.8 (72.7) 7.7 (45.8) 7.7(42.2) Wilson B factor (Å²) 13.3 31.4 35.8 Completeness (%)  97.9 (86.8)95.8 (71.1)  98.1 (93.1)  Multiplicity 11.9 (8.1) 5.2 (3.0)  4.0 (3.9) <I/σ(I)> 19.2 (2.1) 15.7 (2.3)  9.0 (2.0)  (C) Refinement Resolutionrange (Å)  82.66-1.17 38.59-2.16  65.92-2.00 Reflections used in112092/5900 26610/1406 36969/1946 refinement (work/free) Final R valuefor all 13.5/15.4 21.0/25.4 19.14/22.16 reflections (work/free) (%)Protein residues 342 342 342 Inhibitor atoms 72 50 26 Water molecules333 144 143 RMSD, bond lengths (Å) 0.008 0.008 0.008 RMSD, bond angles(°) 1.0 0.8 0.8 Ramachandran plot:^(c) Ramachandran favored (%) 98.595.7 97.9 Ramachandran outliers (%) 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mean B factors (Å²):Protein non-hydrogen atoms 15.1 30.4 40.9 Inhibitor 15.9 40.8 61.6 Watermolecules 32.6 33.9 43.8 ^(a)Values in brackets refer to the highestresolution shell ^(b)Matthews coefficient and solvent content werecalculated with the Matthews_coef program from the CCP4 suite (Winn, etal., 2011, Acta Crystallogr. Sect. D Biol. Crystallogr. 67:235-242)^(c)Ramachandran plots were calculated with MolProbity (Chen, et at.,2010, Acta Crystallogr. Sect. D Biol. Crystallogr. 66:12-21)

Description of the Ligand Binding Sites:

Only the crystal packing of MIF co-crystallized with 3a (space groupI4₁22) enables three copies of the ligand to bind simultaneously. In thespace group P3₁21 as a result of the co-crystallization with 4a and 4b,the binding site at the interface of monomers Band Cis blocked due tothe packing in the crystal. Furthermore, likewise due to crystalpacking, 4b is not able to occupy the binding site at the interface ofmonomers A and C due to its larger size compared to 4a. At the latterbinding site, only a partially defined and diffuse electron density—notsufficient for ligand modelling—is observed. FIG. 7 shows the polderOMIT maps (Liebschner, et al., 2017, Acta Crystallogr. Sect. D Struct.Biol. 73:148-157) of all three ligands bound to the binding siteestablished by monomers A and B. Both oxygens of the solvent-exposedterminal carboxy group of 4b could not be reliably detected in theelectron density and thus were not included into the model. This can, inone aspect, be explained by high flexibility of the solubilizing moietysticking out of the pocket and into the solvent.

The disclosures of each and every patent, patent application, andpublication cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety. While this invention has been disclosed with referenceto specific embodiments, it is apparent that other embodiments andvariations of this invention may be devised by others skilled in the artwithout departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. Theappended claims are intended to be construed to include all suchembodiments and equivalent variations.

1-14. (canceled)
 15. A method of inhibiting macrophage migrationinhibitory factor (MIF) activity in a subject, the method comprisingadministering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of acompound of formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt orsolvate thereof:

wherein: A is CR⁵ or N; R¹ is: (a) methyl substituted with at least oneselected from the group consisting of —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR,—OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, and —OC(═O)NRR; or (b) selected from the groupconsisting of propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert butyl, pentyl,neopentyl, hexyl, cyclopropylmethyl, and C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl; or (c)selected from the group consisting of ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl,isobutyl, tert butyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, and cyclopropylmethyl,and C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl, wherein the ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl,isobutyl, tert butyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, cyclopropylmethyl orheteroalkyl group is substituted with at least one selected from thegroup consisting of —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR,—OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR,—N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, R² and R³ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, C₁-C₆alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, (C₃-C₇cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10 memberedheteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, or one of R² and R³ is -L-R¹¹,wherein: L is selected from the group consisting of a bond, —O—, —N(R)—,C₁-C₄ alkylene, —C(═O)—, —N(R)C(═O)—, and —C(═O)N(R)—; and R¹¹ isoptionally substituted phenyl, pyridinyl, or pyrimidinyl; R⁴, R⁵, R⁶,and R¹⁰ are each independently selected from the group consisting of H,halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, and C₁-C₆ haloalkyl; R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, C₁-C₆alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, (C₃-C₇cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10 memberedheteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, each occurrence of R isindependently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁-C₆ alkyl,C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₈ heterocyclyl,or the two R bound to the same N optionally form a C₃-C₈ heterocyclylgroup; each occurrence of R′ is independently selected from the groupconsisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₈ heterocyclyl; each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,cycloalkyl, or heterocyclyl group is optionally substituted with atleast one substituent selected from the group consisting of halogen,C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, and each phenyl or heteroaryl groupis optionally substituted with at least one substituent selected fromthe group consisting of halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10membered heterocyclyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, C₆-C₁₀aryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, 5-10 membered heteroaryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, 4-10membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R,—C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R,—N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR.16. A method of treating a disease, disorder, or condition in a subject,wherein the disease, disorder, or condition is selected from the groupconsisting of an inflammatory disease or condition, an autoimmunedisease, cancer, a disease or condition that is associated with high MIFexpression, and anemia of chronic disease, the method comprisingadministering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of acompound of formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt orsolvate thereof:

wherein: A is CR⁵ or N; R¹ is: (a) methyl substituted with at least oneselected from the group consisting of —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR,—OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, and —OC(═O)NRR, or (b) selected from the groupconsisting of propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert butyl, pentyl,neopentyl, hexyl, cyclopropylmethyl, and C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl; or (c)selected from the group consisting of ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl,isobutyl, tert butyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, and cyclopropylmethyl,and C₁-C₆ heteroalkyl, wherein the ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl,isobutyl, tert butyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, cyclopropylmethyl orheteroalkyl group is substituted with at least one selected from thegroup consisting of —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR,—OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR,—N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, R² and R³ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, C₁-C₆alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, (C₃-C₇cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10 memberedheteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, or one of R² and R³ is -L-R¹¹,wherein: L is selected from the group consisting of a bond, —O—, —N(R)—,C₁-C₄ alkylene, —C(═O)—, —N(R)C(═O)—, and —C(═O)N(R)—; and R¹¹ isoptionally substituted phenyl, pyridinyl, or pyrimidinyl; R⁴, R⁵, R⁶,and R¹⁰ are each independently selected from the group consisting of H,halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, and C₁-C₆ haloalkyl; R⁷, R⁸, and R⁹ areindependently selected from the group consisting of H, halogen, C₁-C₆alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, (C₃-C₇cycloalkyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (C₆-C₁₀ aryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (5-10 memberedheteroaryl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene, (4-10 membered heterocyclyl)-C₁-C₄ alkylene,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, each occurrence of R isindependently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁-C₆ alkyl,C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₈ heterocyclyl,or the two R bound to the same N optionally form a C₃-C₈ heterocyclylgroup; each occurrence of R′ is independently selected from the groupconsisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆ alkynyl, C₃-C₈cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₈ heterocyclyl; each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl,cycloalkyl, or heterocyclyl group is optionally substituted with atleast one substituent selected from the group consisting of halogen,C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl,nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R, —C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R,—OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R, —N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR,—S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR, and each phenyl or heteroaryl groupis optionally substituted with at least one substituent selected fromthe group consisting of halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₂-C₆ alkenyl, C₂-C₆alkynyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10membered heterocyclyl, C₃-C₇ cycloalkyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, C₆-C₁₀aryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, 5-10 membered heteroaryl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, 4-10membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₄ alkylene, nitro, —CN, —OR, —NRR, —C(═O)R,—C(═O)OR, —C(═O)NRR, —OC(═O)R, —OC(═O)OR, —OC(═O)NRR, —N(R)C(═O)R,—N(R)C(═O)OR, —N(R)C(═O)NRR, —SR, —S(═O)R′, —S(═O)₂R′, and —S(═O)₂NRR.17. The method of claim 16, wherein the inflammatory disease orcondition is selected from the group consisting of proliferativevascular disease, acute respiratory distress syndrome, cytokine-mediatedtoxicity, psoriasis, interleukin-2 toxicity, appendicitis, peptic,gastric and duodenal ulcers, peritonitis, pancreatitis, ulcerative,pseudomembranous, acute and ischemic colitis, diverticulitis,epiglottitis, achalasia, cholangitis, cholecystitis, hepatitis,inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, enteritis, Whipple'sdisease, asthma, allergy, anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease,organ ischemia, reperfusion injury, organ necrosis, hay fever, sepsis,septicemia, endotoxic shock, cachexia, hyperpyrexia, eosinophilicgranuloma, granulomatosis sarcoidosis, septic abortion, epididymitis,vaginitis, prostatitis, urethritis, bronchitis, emphysema, rhinitis,cystic fibrosis, pneumonitis, alvealitis, bronchiolitis, pharyngitis,pleurisy, sinusitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virus infection,herpes infection, HIV infection, hepatitis B virus infection, hepatitisC virus infection, disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever, candidiasis,malaria, filariasis, amebiasis, hydatid cysts, burns, dermatitis,dermatomyositis, sunburn, urticaria, warts, wheals, vasulitis, angiitis,endocarditis, arteritis, atherosclerosis, thrombophlebitis,pericarditis, myocarditis, myocardial ischemia, periarteritis nodosa,rheumatic fever, Alzheimer's disease, coeliac disease, congestive heartfailure, meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, cerebralinfarction, cerebral embolism, Guillame-Barre syndrome, neuritis,neuralgia, spinal cord injury, paralysis, uveitis, arthritides,arthralgias, osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease, gout,periodontal disease, rheumatoid arthritis, synovitis, myasthenia gravis,thryoiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Goodpasture's syndrome,Behcets's syndrome, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease,ankylosing spondylitis, Berger's disease, type 1 diabetes, type 2diabetes, Berger's disease, Retier's syndrome, and Hodgkin's disease.18. (canceled)
 19. The method of claim 16, wherein the autoimmunedisease is selected from the group consisting of multiple sclerosis,systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, graft versus hostdisease, autoimmune pulmonary inflammation, autoimmuneencephalomyelitis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, autoimmune thyroiditis,insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease, scleroderma,psoriasis, Sjögren's syndrome, and autoimmune inflammatory eye disease.20. (canceled)
 21. The method of claim 16, wherein the cancer is a solidtumor or a hematological cancer.
 22. The method of claim 16, wherein thecancer is selected from the group consisting of prostate cancer, coloncancer, esophageal cancer, endometrial cancer, ovarian cancer, uterinecancer, renal cancer, hepatic cancer, pancreatic cancer, gastric cancer,breast cancer, lung cancer, cancers of the head or neck, thyroid cancer,glioblastoma, sarcoma, bladder cancer, lymphoma, leukemia, diffuse largeB-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), mantle cell lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma,Hodgkin's lymphoma, and multiple myeloma.
 23. (canceled)
 24. The methodof claim 16, wherein the disease or condition associated with high MIFexpression is selected from the group consisting of protozoal infection,fungal infection, bacterial infection, viral infection, anemia ofchronic disease, asthma, and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). 25.(canceled)
 26. The method of claim 16, wherein the compound is selectedfrom the group consisting of:


27. The method of claim 16, wherein R¹ is selected from the groupconsisting of —CH₂CH₂OH, —CH₂CH₂NH₂, —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂OH,—CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂NH₂, —CH₂CH₂OCH₂CH₂-4-morpholinyl, —CH₂COOH, —CH₂CH₂COOH,and —CH₂CH₂CH₂COOH.
 28. The method of claim 16, wherein R² is H or —OR.29. The method of claim 16, wherein R³ is selected from the groupconsisting of H, C₆-C₁₀ aryl, and —OR.
 30. The method of claim 29,wherein R³ is H, unsubstituted phenyl, or phenyl substituted with 1substituent selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₆ alkyl, halogen,C₁-C₆ alkoxy, and —OR″, wherein R″ is unsubstituted phenyl or phenylsubstituted with 1 group independently selected from the groupconsisting of —OR and —C(═O)OR.
 31. The method of claim 16, wherein oneof R² and R³ is -L-R¹¹.
 32. The method of claim 16, wherein L is O orNH.
 33. The method of claim 16, wherein R² and an optional substituentin R¹¹ are independently selected from the group consisting of H, C₁-C₆alkoxy, C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, carboxy, carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl,amino-C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkyl, di(C₁-C₆alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkyl, amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkyl, 4-10membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆alkoxy, amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆ alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, di(C₁-C₆alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, amino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, C₁-C₆alkylamino-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, di(C₁-C₆ alkyl)amino-C₁-C₆alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, 4-10membered heterocyclyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, carboxy-C₁-C₆alkyl-C₁-C₆ alkoxy, and carboxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy-C₁-C₆ alkoxy.
 34. Themethod of claim 16, wherein R⁴ and R⁵ are independently selected fromthe group consisting of H, F, and C₁-C₆ alkyl.
 35. The method of claim16, wherein R⁶ is H; R⁷ is halogen, C₁-C₆ alkyl, or —OR; R⁸ is —OH,halogen, —CN, —OR, —NRR, or —C(═O)NRR; R⁹ is H or halogen; and R¹⁰ is H.36. The method of claim 16, wherein R⁶, R⁷, R⁹, and R¹⁰ are eachindependently selected from the group consisting of H and F.
 37. Themethod of claim 16, wherein R⁸ is selected from the group consisting ofH, F, Cl, and —OH.